|
Chapter 17: OTHER PUNCTUATION
What are basic definitions and uses of major
punctuation? ---
Very Brief
Guide to
Punctuation
"Fanboys"
"Fact Hit"
Common
Comma Rules
Shortcuts
for Avoiding
Common Mistakes
---
Also
See "Spell
and Grammar Check" in the "What Is
'Revising'?" chapter.
---
This chapter is about punctuation and related
matters. It reviews basic punctuation marks, explains "fanboys"
conjunctions and "fact hit" conjunctive adverbs, summarizes basic comma rules,
and offers a number of shortcuts for avoiding common mistakes--all with
examples.
---
Very Brief Guide to Punctuation
|
. ? ! |
Periods (.), question marks (?), and exclamation
points (!) show the ending of sentences. |
|
,
|
Commas show pauses, and they
generally
are used according to specific rules. |
|
;
|
Semicolons show stronger pauses; use one to
replace a period as a sort of "soft period" that allows the two sentences to
be more closely connected. Use two or more as what might be called "super commas,"
primarily to make a list of lists, dividing the smaller lists from each
other with semicolons. |
|
: |
Usually, what comes before a colon is the
general statement and must be a complete sentence. And what comes
after is a list, explanation, or detail that may or may not be a complete
sentence. A colon also can be used to lead into an indented quotation,
as in this sentence: "Smith
says the following:". |
|
" " |
Double quotation marks (" ")
are placed around quoted words and short titles. |
|
' '
|
If you need a quotation within a quotation, use
single quotation marks (' ') inside double quotation marks (" ' ' "). |
|
( ) |
Parentheses ( ) enclose words or phrases that
seem like explanations on the side--quiet, secondary words. You may
write a few words or even a complete sentence in them. The rest of the
sentence must be a grammatical whole--a complete sentence--without the
material in parentheses. |
|
[ ] |
Brackets [ ] are used in quotations when you are
explaining or summarizing some of the quoted words in your own words: e.g.,
in the quotation "Romeo
loved well," you might want to explain
the quote better by adding a word: "Romeo
loved [Juliet] well." |
|
( [ ] ) |
If you need parentheses inside of parentheses,
use brackets inside of parentheses. |
|
- |
Hyphens connect two
words or divide one word into syllables on two lines. |
|
-- --
— — |
Dashes (typed as two pairs of short hyphens) are used as
if they are interrupting or emphatic parentheses.
(MS Word often will automatically
turn each pair of hyphens into one longer dash.) |
|
/ |
Diagonal
slashes mean "and/or."
They also are used in web addresses. |
|
* |
Asterisks
are like footnote marks: 1 in the text, & 1 at the end (where you explain). |
|
& |
Ampersands mean "and." They're not used formally
except in a title or quotation. |
|
Title |
Use italics for titles of long works such
as books, newspapers, magazines, a TV series, or an album of songs. |
|
"Title" |
Use "quotation marks" for titles of short
works such as articles, essays, short newsletters, one episode of a TV
series, or a single song. |
|
"x . . . x" |
An ellipsis (3
dots) shows you have left some words out of the middle of a quotation. |
|
"x. . . ." |
A period followed by an ellipsis shows you have
left some words out at the end of a quoted sentence. |
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"Fanboys"
"Fanboys" is a mnemonic or
memory device used in some grammar handbooks for remembering the seven most
important conjunctions. These seven conjunctions include the most common
three--"and," "or," and "but." They also include four more, as below.
When such conjunctions are used between simple objects (for example, "stone
and earth," "plastic or paper"), they do not usually have commas
before them. However, if conjunctions are used between two independent
clauses, they do require commas before them (unless the two clauses are very
short. What is an independent clause? It is a clause that can stand
on its own--independently. A complete sentence is an independent clause.
See "Chapter 11. Sentences" for an explanation of an independent clause.
In the language of that chapter, an independent clause is a "peacock."
Here are some examples of independent clauses:
"I love
going to town."
"My friends like to go with me."
If you put these two independent clauses together,
you use a comma-conjunction to do it. The easiest
comma-conjunction to use is ", and":
"I love
going to town, and my friends like to go with me."
Two other comma-conjunctions that could be
used are ", for" and ", so":
"I love
going to town, for my friends like to go with me."
"I love
going to town, so my friends like to go with me."
These seven "fanboys" conjunctions are so important
because they are one way to make short, choppy sentences flow together better.
In addition, they also are a cure for what is perhaps the single most
identifiable and worst type of college-level punctuation error: the comma
splice. A comma splice is two independent clauses (like two sentences)
stuck together without a "fanboys" word between them. Here are two
examples (with the middles crossed out to emphasize they are incorrect):
"I love going to town,
my friends like to go with me."
"We got to town,
three of them went to eat and two to buy gas."
Again, this is perhaps the most common
highly-noticeable punctuation error you can make on a college or professional
paper, so you need to avoid it. And the easiest way to avoid it, often, is
to simply add a "fanboys" word between the two independent clauses, along with a
comma before it. There are more conjunctions than just "fanboys," but they
are the main ones. Here are the "fanboys" conjunctions:
"Fanboys" Conjunctions
|
|
Conjunction |
Example |
|
F |
, for |
We went downtown, for I wanted to have a
good time. |
|
A |
, and |
We went downtown, and I had a good time. |
|
N |
, nor |
He did not have a good time, nor did
Shannon. |
|
B |
, but |
We went downtown, but I didn't have a
good time. |
|
O |
, or |
Do you want to go downtown, or would you
rather stay? |
|
Y |
, yet |
We went downtown, yet I still didn't have
a good time. |
|
S |
, so |
They wanted to go downtown, so I went
with them. |
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"Fact Hit"
"Fact hit" is another memory
device (an earlier version of which was invented by Jason Miller of Inver Hills
Community College). It is similar to "fanboys."
However,
"fact hit" is a device to remember "conjunctive
adverbs." Conjunctive adverbs are another type of word that can go
between independent clauses. They also help cure the deadly comma splice.
Here are three sets of sentences. The first in each set had an unallowable
comma splice (with a
strikethrough to show it is wrong); the
second sentence in each set shows the comma splice being cured by a conjunctive
adverb (with bold underlining).
I love baseball, I
also like to cook.
I love baseball; however, I also like to cook.
You praise everyone, you
tend to see only the best in them.
You praise everyone; therefore, you tend to see only the best in them.
Washington was very honest, he
expected it of the nation.
Washington was very honest; consequently, he expected it of the nation.
The corrected versions not only are grammatically
correct but, more important, they provide a better, more easily understood
transition from the first idea to the second in each sentence. Here is the
"fact hit" chart. There are many more, but these are among the most
common. Note that they always come with a semicolon before them, and
usually a comma after them
(except "thus" because it is just one syllable):
"Fact Hit" Conjunctive Adverbs
|
|
Conjunctive
Adverb |
Example |
|
F |
; furthermore, |
We believe in life; furthermore, we encourage
living to the fullest. |
|
A |
; as a result, |
Life is short; as a result, humans learn too
little. |
|
C |
; consequently, |
I acted poorly; consequently, I paid a price. |
|
T |
; therefore, |
I hurt a friend; therefore, I hurt myself as
well. |
|
H |
; however, |
Sometimes I love life; however, it can be hard,
too. |
|
I |
; in turn, |
I try to do good; in turn, I hope it is done to
me. |
|
T |
; thus |
Pleasure passes; thus we need to be ethical. |
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Common Comma
Rules
Do you hate commas? Do you never know what to do with them or what not? Believe it or
not, comma rules actually exist to help. They may feel like they are not very much help to
you as a writer; however, they are quite helpful to readers. Comma rules actually are
fairly basic and consistent. Some of the most common ones are discussed below.
First, though, you need to be aware of two major comma don’ts. These don’ts
are poor but popular methods of dealing with commas, each of which may cause a major visit
from the grammar police. One is the avoid-commas-totally-and-hope-no-one-notices method.
If this is your style, you probably use it because it seems safer than making many comma
errors. Unfortunately, this method makes your writing more difficult to read: on the one
hand, your long sentences will be confusing to read because they lack commas; on the
other, you may have a tendency to use many more short sentences, which makes your writing
sound choppy and unprofessional. Either way, you cannot win.
The other poor but popular method of dealing with commas is the commas-as-salt-and-pepper
method: you know you need commas, so you figure that if you sprinkle them all over
your paper (lightly or heavily, to taste), you might be okay. This method also makes
papers difficult to read. Readers unconsciously have certain expectations of where commas
will and will not be, precisely because there are consistent comma rules. Salting and
peppering your paper with commas will, once again, make your sentences hard to read.
Here are some thumbnail guidelines that may help you with commas. They
might help you stay out of
punctuation jail.
(a.) ONE COMMA BETWEEN TWO CONNECTED SENTENCES
RIGHT: We went to town last night with friends, and we had a good time at the dance.
RIGHT: We will stay home tonight, but we’ll manage to enjoy ourselves there, too.
RIGHT: We need to find more places to go, or we may have difficulty finding variety.
WRONG: We enjoy going out with friends and relatives who are nice are fun, too.
Explanation: When you have two sentences made into one by a dividing conjunction
(and, or, but, etc.), you need to have a comma between them. (The two connected sentences
are called "independent clauses," which means simply that each could be a
sentence standing by itself with a period at its end.)
Exception: If one of the two connected sentences is very short, then you may choose
to omit the comma (if doing so does not lead to reader confusion).
RIGHT: We went to town and I saw many people.
RIGHT: We went to town, and I saw many people.
WRONG: I saw Tim and Harry and Jim saw Susan.
(b.) NO COMMA BEFORE EVERY CONJUNCTION
RIGHT: We enjoyed ourselves, but then we went home.
RIGHT: At home we let the cat out and then went to bed.
RIGHT: Before bed we had milk and cookies.
WRONG: Then we crawled between the covers, and soon were fast asleep.
WRONG: We had many good dreams, and some bad ones.
Explanation: Using a conjunction (and, or, but, et al.) is not in itself a reason
to use a comma. A conjunction that divides two sentence units placed together (as in a.
above) does need a comma before it. And a series of items (e.g., pears, peaches, or
apples) may have a comma before its conjunction (see d. below). However, there are
many other uses of conjunctions in which you cannot add commas before them. As a general
guideline, avoid using a comma before a conjunction unless you know of a specific rule for
doing so.
(c.) ONE COMMA AFTER AN INTRODUCTORY PHRASE
RIGHT: In the morning before we left the house, we fed the dog.
RIGHT: Using the can opener that we took from the drawer, my friend opened the food.
RIGHT: Slowly and carefully in order not to slip on the waxed floor, the dog trotted
over.
WRONG: If in doubt about the food his dog will start sniffing it carefully.
WRONG: In the morning, in the kitchen, when he is hungry, sometimes, he will howl.
Explanation: A long introductory phrase should have a comma at its end before the
subject-verb part of the sentence begins. If there are several introductory phrases (as in
the first sentence above), usually they are placed beside each other with no commas;
however, do have a comma at the end of them—before the subject-verb part of the
sentence begins.
Exception: You may omit the comma if the introductory phrase is short (and omitting
the comma will not lead to reader confusion):
RIGHT: After dawn he gets very hungry.
RIGHT: After dawn, he gets very hungry.
WRONG: After leaving Janet and Jim hurry to work.
Hint: In general it is wise to avoid writing a large number of sentences with long
introductory phrases. If you have a large number of them, your writing will be more
difficult to read (because the reader has to remember the contents of each introductory
phrase and cannot apply these contents until her eyes finally arrive at the subject of the
sentence. The more often and the longer you make her wait, the more difficulty she will
have reading your writing. Some introductory phrases are good for variety, if you wish,
and short introductory phrases usually do not slow down the average adult reader.
If you have a tendency to write too many long introductory phrases, you should learn to
fix them in the editing phase (not necessarily the first rough drafts) of your
writing. The way to revise them is to keep them, but place them at the ends of sentences
instead of the beginnings (see below).
Exception to the hint: Long, introductory phrases—even many of them in
sequence—are not difficult to understand if they are what is called "dependent
clauses," which means that they have their own little subjects and verbs within them.
For example, the phrases "If I feed him well" and "When I leave the
house," though not complete sentences that could stand alone, do have their own
subjects and verbs; hence they are dependent clauses, and they are easily readable.)
(d.) NO COMMA BEFORE A SIMILAR CLOSING PHRASE
RIGHT: We fed the dog in the morning before we left the house.
RIGHT: My friend opened the food using the can opener that we took from the drawer.
RIGHT: The dog trotted over slowly and carefully in order not to slip on the waxed
floor.
WRONG: He will start sniffing it carefully, if he’s in doubt about the food.
Explanation:
The kind of phrase that can be an introductory phrase (with a comma
after it) at the beginning of a sentence is punctuated differently at the end of
the same sentence. At a sentence’s end, the same phrase should not be
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Exception: Sometimes a phrase of the type discussed in b. and c. above also or
alternately can be an "interrupter" word or phrase (see below).
(e.) ONE OR MORE COMMAS IN A SERIES
RIGHT: We ate corn, peas, and carrots for dinner.
RIGHT: We ate corn, peas and carrots for dinner.
WRONG: We ate corn peas and carrots for dinner.
WRONG: We ate corn and peas and carrots for dinner.
RIGHT: That is a long, hard, slippery slope ahead. (…a hard, slippery, long slope
ahead.)
WRONG: It leads to a deep narrow rocky ravine.
Explanation: Use commas to divide the items of a series. You may use a comma before
the "and" as well (the traditional and academic method, as in the first example
above), or you may skip the comma before the "and" (the journalists’
method, as in the second example above). However, whichever method you use, be consistent.
A series of adjectives may or may not need commas: if the adjectives are
interchangeable or can take the word "and" between them, then use commas. If
not, then do not.
If you can join the adjectives with the word "and" or if they can be
interchanged with each other in a different order (as above), then you need commas between
them. (In such a situation, the adjectives are called "coordinate.")
If you cannot join the adjectives with the word "and" or reverse their order
(as cannot be done below in "two fresh string beans"), then do not add commas.
No commas are needed because each adjective in turn modifies the whole phrase that comes
after it. For example, in the sentence below, the word "fresh" is describing one
item that is called "string beans." And the word "two" is
describing one item that is called "fresh string beans." (In such a
situation, the adjectives are called "cumulative.")
RIGHT: We ate two fresh string beans.
WRONG: We ate two, fresh, string beans. We ate two and fresh and string beans.
WRONG: We ate string, fresh, two beans.
(f.) TWO COMMAS (or two long dashes or two parentheses ) FOR AN
INTERRUPTER
WORD OR PHRASE
RIGHT: We cannot leave our homework, three heavy books, at school when we leave.
RIGHT: It is tempting, however, to leave the homework—all of it—in my locker.
RIGHT: The homework is (unfortunately) very difficult to do this time.
WRONG: I must take it my unpleasant homework home however so I can try to study it.
WRONG: I will, I promise study it and, consequently learn.
Explanation:
Usually you will not need to use a single, stand-alone comma in a
sentence when there is no long introductory phrase and no series of items. Most of the
time, if you do need a comma for something else, you will need a pair, not just one. The
kinds of words and phrases that require a pair of commas also usually could have a pair of
dashes, -- --, or a pair of parentheses, ( ), around them. Such words and phrases
sometimes are called "interrupter" words and phrases because they interrupt the
flow of the sentence AND could be removed completely from the sentence without changing
the meaning of the sentence. If you remove each of the interrupter phrases above, you will
see that they are not necessary for the basic meaning of the sentences. They just add more
information or interesting detail for the reader.
Exception: If the interrupter word or phrase occurs at the very beginning or very
end of the sentence, use just one comma. Do not use two, but do not skip a comma, either:
RIGHT: However, it is tempting to leave the homework at school, all of it.
WRONG: ,However, it is tempting to leave the homework at school, all of it,.
WRONG: However it is tempting to leave the homework at school all of it.
(g.) TWO COMMAS FOR A NAME OR TITLE INTERRUPTER
RIGHT: My only sister, Jan, lives in Michigan.
RIGHT: In my family, Jan, my sister, lives in Michigan.
RIGHT: My daughter Jessica lives in Minnesota. [I have two daughters.]
RIGHT: My younger daughter, Marian, lives in Minnesota, too.
RIGHT: Bill Clinton, President of the United States, lives in Washington, D.C.
GUIDELINE: If I have two brothers, then "my brother Bill is here"
is correct.
If I have one brother, then "my brother, Bill, is here"
is correct.
Explanation: If I have only one sister and I want to identify her as an individual,
I only need to write "my sister" or "Jan." I do not need to say both.
Therefore, if I do write both, the second occurrence is an interrupter, and it should have
two commas around it. (The second occurrence is called a "nonrestrictive"
element.)
However, if I have two daughters, then referring to one of them by name is not
additional, unnecessary information. Rather, it actually helps restrict, define, or limit
the meaning to just one individual. Therefore, the commas are not needed. (The second
occurrence is called a "restrictive" element.)
Hint: There are many other forms of restrictive and nonrestrictive words and
phrases. Just remember that one kind—the kind that appears to offer no new defining
information, thus acting like an interrupter—needs two commas, one on each
side of it. The other kind needs no commas.
(h.) ONE COMMA FOR CLARITY
RIGHT: Whoever walks, walks quietly.
WRONG: Whoever runs runs loudly.
Explanation:
Occasionally a comma is necessary to keep a reader from becoming
confused. Often a sentence can be rewritten to make better sense and avoid an extra
sentence; however, if the clearest, most efficient way of writing the sentence requires
the use of an extra comma for clarity, such a comma is helpful.
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Shortcuts
for Avoiding Common Mistakes
(of Punctuation, Usage, Spelling,
et al.)
COMMA SPLICES
RIGHT: Our dog is purebred; it is a husky. WRONG: Our dog is purebred, it is a husky.
RIGHT: Our dog is purebred: it is a husky. RIGHT: Our dog is purebred and is a husky.
RIGHT: Our dog is purebred, and it is a husky. RIGHT: Our dog is purebred, a husky.
Explanation: Do not divide two complete sentences with just a comma. Test each
questionable comma with a period: if a period can be placed there, then you must use the
period, a semicolon (;), or a comma and a conjunction (e.g., "and,"
"but," "or," "so," "for," or "yet").
Most commonly, what people want in such a situation is a semicolon or, perhaps, a comma
and a conjunction.
EXCEPTION: Some fiction, advertising, tabloid newspapers, and magazines contain comma
splices, especially in dialogue. However, in the formal styles of English--whether
professional, academic, or literary--comma splices are considered unnecessary and
unacceptable.
DANGLING FRAGMENTS
RIGHT: We had a good time--what a night! WRONG: We had a good time. What a night!
RIGHT: We were right. Anyone could tell. WRONG: We were right. As anyone could tell.
RIGHT: It is hard, which can happen. WRONG: It is hard. Which can happen.
Explanation: Sometimes fragments may seem like a convenient and acceptable way to
emphasize a phrase or make a strong point. However, fragments are not acceptable in formal
writing, whether professional or academic. In addition, usually the desired emphasis can
be kept with careful punctuation, as above.
EXCEPTION: Fragments occasionally are necessary in quotations in order to quote the
speakers (or writers) accurately. Fragments also are common in informal writing,
especially in advertising, and in some forms of creative writing.
UNNECESSARY COLONS
RIGHT: Our list includes pears, peas, and pop.
WRONG: Our list includes: pears, peas, and pop.
Explanation: Do not use a colon in a normal sentence that does not require one. A colon
should have before it a complete sentence that could take a period:
We have made a list today: pears, peas, and pop.
Our list includes the following foods: pears, peas, and pop.
We eat well: we buy only healthy foods.
EXCEPTION: Business, technical, and journalistic writing may allow an incomplete
sentence and a colon before a list which is in a column:
RIGHT: Our list includes:
pears
peas
pop
"HOWEVER," NOT "ALTHOUGH"
RIGHT: However, we might go.
WRONG: Although, we might go.
Explanation: "Although" cannot substitute for "However" at the
beginning of a simple sentence. By using "Although" in this situation, you
create a sentence fragment (just as if you mistakenly considered "When we might
go" to be a complete sentence).
EXCEPTION: If "Although" is the start of an introductory phrase, and this
phrase is followed by a complete sentence, then "Although" may be used:
RIGHT: Although we might go, we are not yet prepared for it.
NUMBERS
RIGHT: ten, one hundred, 101, one thousand.
WRONG: 10, 100, one hundred one, 1000.
Explanation: In MLA style (used in most composition
and literature classrooms), numbers should be in letter form when they require only one or two written
words; for three or more words, use numerals. NOTE: Other styles--e.g., APA,
Chicago, CSE, et al. may have somewhat different requirements.
EXCEPTION: In a sentence or paragraph, if you must use several numbers, one of which
must be in numeric form (e.g., 101), then all similar numbers in that sentence or
paragraph should be in numeric form.
EXCEPTION: In some forms of business, technical, mathematic, and scientific writing,
numbers commonly are in numeric form when grouped in detailed explanations or in lists,
charts, or tables. Even so, paragraphs of general information with simple numbers should
follow the above rule about spelling numbers in word form.
LONG DASHES
RIGHT: Our need--the problem--is clear.
WRONG: Our need - the problem - is clear.
WRONG: Our need -- the problem -- is clear.
WRONG: Our need-the problem-is clear.
Explanation: In articles and books, sometimes the authors use a long dash (--).
However, on most of our printers and typewriters, no long dash exists. As a result, we
must use the hyphen (-) twice (--) to substitute for a long dash. There should be no space
before or after it.
EXCEPTION: If you are making a hyphenated word, use just one hyphen (-) with no spaces.
SUBTITLES
RIGHT: First Point
WRONG: FIRST POINT
RIGHT: First Point
WRONG: First Point: Chang-tze argues that. . . .
Explanation: Usually subtitles should be in normally typed letters that are underlined,
and only the first letter (or the first letter of each word) should be capitalized. In
addition, subtitles usually stand alone on a line; the text that goes with them follows
beneath them in a new paragraph.
EXCEPTION: If you need to use sub-subtitles (subtitles within an already subtitled
section), these sub-subtitles may be placed at the beginnings of paragraphs such that text
follows them, and in some situations, they may be written in bold and/or all in capital
letters. (However, usually they are not underlined, so that they remain less noticeable
than the main, underlined subtitles.)
MOST PUNCTUATION (IN U.S.A.) GOES INSIDE QUOTATION MARKS: ",.?!"
RIGHT: She read "Circus," and she said, "Hi."
WRONG: "She read "Circus", and she said, "Hi".
RIGHT She read "Why Travel?" and said, "Wow!"
Explanation: When words or a title are placed in quotation marks, even if only one word
is used, an ending comma or period must be placed inside of the final set of quotation
marks. The same is true of a question mark (?) or exclamation point (!) if the
"?" or "!" are part of the quoted words.
EXCEPTION: If a quotation or short title is followed immediately by a parenthetical
citation, then the punctuation should be placed after the citation:
RIGHT: According to Smith, a good article to read is "Circus" (16).
RIGHT: Smith asked, "How can anyone dislike the circus" (16)?
EXCEPTION: If a "?" or "!" is not part of the quotation but rather
belongs to the surrounding, unquoted sentence--the "?" or "!" should be
placed after the quotation marks:
RIGHT: Why did you say, "Washington never lied"?
RIGHT: I can't believe you read "Eating Prunes Today"!
EXCEPTION: Many other countries require that commas and periods be placed outside of
the quotation marks, as you may find when researching materials from such countries or
when watching some foreign movies with English subtitles:
RIGHT IN NON-U.S. COUNTRIES: She read an article called "The Arts", and she said "Hi".
THE BEGINNING OF QUOTATIONS
RIGHT: Jones said, "This works."
WRONG: Jones said "This works."
RIGHT: Jones said, "This works."
WRONG: Jones said that "This works."
RIGHT: Jones said, "This works."
WRONG: Jones said that, "This works."
RIGHT: Jones said, "This works."
WRONG: Jones said that "this works."
Explanation: When starting a quotation of a complete sentence, lead into it with a word
or phrase and a comma: for example: "said," "says,"
"states," "writes," "According to [Author]," and similar
words. The first letter of the quotation should be a capital letter if, in the original
source, the letter was capitalized.
EXCEPTION: If you have constructed your lead-in in such a way that using a comma before
the quotation would be incorrect, then you may change the first letter of the quotation to
a small letter by using brackets:
RIGHT: Jones has reported that most of the time "[t]his works."
CITATIONS AFTER QUOTATIONS: " " ( ).
RIGHT: Hanson said, "We are right" (16).
WRONG: Hanson said, "We are right"(16).
RIGHT: Hanson said, "We are right" (p. 16).
WRONG: Hanson said, "We are right." (p.16)
RIGHT: Hanson said, "We are right" (p 16).
WRONG: Hanson said, "We are right." (p16).
Explanation: When using parenthetical citation ( ), use correct spacing and placement
of the period. The first example, above, is shown in MLA style (__), the second in APA (p.
__), and the third in CBE (p __). Avoid mixing styles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY INDENTATIONS, MLA and APA:
RIGHT (MLA):
Xxxxx, Xxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxx
xxxxx. Xxxxxx xxxxxx xxxxx.
RIGHT (APA):
Xxxxx, Xxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxx
xxxxx. Xxxxxx xxxxxx xxxxx.
OR
Xxxxx, Xxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxx xx xxxxx
xxxxx xxx. Xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxx.
Explanation: MLA requires what is called a "hanging indent," so called
because the first line "hangs" on the left over empty space. The second, third,
fourth, et al. lines must be indented about one-half inch. APA publishes in a hanging
indent, too, and many grammar books suggest typing hanging-indent bibliography entries.
However, the correct way to type (not publish) APA entries, according to the official APA
stylebook, is to use normal paragraph indentations as above, indenting the first line
(only) of each entry about one-half inch. If your article is published, then the editors
will convert your paragraph indents to hanging indents. Usually the instructor of a course
decides which version of APA he/she wants, so ask your instructor first.
BRACKETS [ ] TO REPLACE WORDS IN QUOTATIONS
ORIGINAL QUOTE: Vasquez said, "Use it carefully. Knowledge is a precious
thing."
RIGHT: Vasquez said, "Use [knowledge] carefully."
WRONG: "Use (knowledge) carefully."
Explanation: You may replace or explain words or phrases with your own words or
phrases, as long as your own are placed in brackets [ ]. Do not use parentheses ( ).
EXCEPTION: If you simply wish to leave out words instead, use an ellipsis (
. . . ):
RIGHT: Vasquez said, "Knowledge is . . . precious. . . ."
ELLIPSES ( . . . ) IN MIDDLES OR ENDS
RIGHT: "Trees grow . . . at the U campus."
WRONG: "Trees grow...at the U campus."
RIGHT: "Trees grow . . . at the U campus."
WRONG: "Trees grow ... at the U campus."
RIGHT: "Trees grow here at the U. . . ."
WRONG: "Trees grow here at the U .... "
Explanation: When using an ellipsis ( . . . ) in the middle of a sentence, use four
spaces. When using an ellipsis at the end of a sentence, add a final period so there are
four periods, and do not have a space before or after the four periods. (One simple way to
remember ellipsis use is to say, "Three periods & four spaces; four periods &
three spaces.")
EXCEPTION: If you have a citation in parentheses at the end of a quotation, an ellipsis
looks like this: "Trees grow here. . ." (65).
EXCEPTION: If you are writing a finished work that
you, yourself, will publish--such as in loading a web page--then you show
ellipses in their published form: with no spaces anywhere before or after them:
"Trees grow here..." (65).
ELLIPSES ( . . . ) AT BEGINNINGS
RIGHT: Smith said that "when. . . ."
WRONG: Smith said that ". . . when. . . ."
RIGHT: Smith said that "when. . . ."
WRONG: Smith said that "When. . . ."
RIGHT: Smith said, "[W]hen. . . ."
WRONG: Smith said, "When. . . ."
Explanation: If, in a quotation, you choose to leave out the beginning words of a
sentence, do not use an ellipsis--simply start the quotation right after the quotation
marks. Try to do so with a letter that is not capitalized, just as in the original
sentence; construct your own wording to lead into the this word comfortably. However, if
you want to use a capital letter, show the change with brackets.
ELLIPSES (. . . . ) AND BRACKETS [ ] BETWEEN TWO SENTENCES
RIGHT: "They ate food. . . . They drank."
WRONG: "They ate food . . . they drank."
RIGHT: "They ate food [and] drank."
WRONG: "They ate food and they drank."
Explanation: Do not ever divide two sentences of a quotation with just an ellipsis:
doing so is grammatically incorrect and creates something akin to a comma splice (an
"ellipsis splice"?). Be sure to provide a fourth period for the previous
sentence, and a capital letter for the following sentence. An alternative is to place a
conjunction (and, or, but, et al.) in brackets between the two sentences, turning them
into one normally acceptable sentence.
USING "ET AL."
RIGHT: Burger et al. argued well.
WRONG: Burger, et al. argued well.
RIGHT: Burger et al. argued well.
WRONG: Burger et. al. argued well.
Explanation: "Et al." is short for "et alia" which means, in Latin,
"and others." Do not put a period after "et" because "et" is
a complete word, not an abbreviation. In addition, do not put a comma before
"et" because the word simply means "and," and no comma would go before
"and" in a similar situation.
EXCEPTION: If you have a series of at least two names and an "et al.," then
you may use a comma as appropriate, just as you would with a series of three or more
names:
RIGHT: Burger, Medwaton, et al. = Burger, Medwaton, and others
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