Chapter 26. SUMMARY       Introduction   Basics   Advanced   Samples   Activities --- Basics of Summarizing --- Why?           Starting                                         Organizing                       Revising & Editing           --- Introduction This section explains the basics of writing and revising a summary--why summarizing exists and how to start, organize, and edit it.  You may want to first see the "Introduction" before reading this page.  Be sure, before or after reading this "Basics Page," to see "Sample Papers" by students.  For more advanced information, go to "Advanced Methods."                  Why This Type of Paper?    The heart of a summary is a completely logical, unbiased, unemotional reflection, in shorter form, of a text (or whatever else is being summarized).  It never is an opportunity to disagree or be upset with what is being summarized, nor to conveniently (or even accidentally) leave out something the author of the text might consider important.  It is an image of the text it summarizes, much like looking through the wrong end of binoculars or a telescope: someone looking at your summary will see a smaller picture of the original reading itself, just as the author would see it.  In real life, of course, being this perfectly objective is impossible.  However, the goal of good summary writing is to put aside one's own beliefs and feelings about a text and, to the extent possible, write the summary as the author herself would.  At first glance people think summary writing is a simple skill.  However, because a person must put aside her own prejudices and also see with the eye, mind, and heart of the author of a text, writing a good summary can be a sophisticated intellectual undertaking.   Summary writing has many uses in college and the professional world. In academic courses, it is useful for briefly describing the contents of a text, speech, or similar activity or event.  In college, for example, there are summaries of social or psychological interactions and cases, of experiments (e.g., a "lab report"), and of scientific and engineering activities (a "scientific poster").  Sometimes, when you read a book and write about it, you are expected to start your paper with a brief summary of it (e.g., see "Critical Review" and "Literary Review").  There are at least three good reasons why such descriptions are important in academic writing. First, they let your audience know what you have read or observed. Second, they convey this material to your audience in a brief, easily understandable form. Third, your strict accuracy in summarizing demonstrates your academic commitment to fairness, balance, and reason--all of which are important academic qualities that improve your ability to think and demonstrate your thinking to your instructors. In the professional world, summary writing also is an important skill. The summary-writing skills of accuracy, brevity, and fairness also are important to companies and service organizations in business reports and proposals, case management, and other professional writings. You may be called upon to summarize business or professional writings, research, or raw data, or you may be asked to summarize events, activities, people's resumes, or professional or workplace problems. Summaries of academic texts, court documents, business documents, people, places, and events are needed frequently, and some professional papers in science and in business, in particular, require "abstracts," which are simply a type of summary (see "Recommendation Report").  Whichever you may need to do, learning to summarize fully and fairly will give you a reputation for being balanced, efficient, and accurate. In addition, in their personal lives, people regularly summarize experiences when talking with others.  Even in personal life, knowing how to offer a thorough, balanced, logical summary is quite helpful in understanding and explaining events to others and in knowing how to ask questions of others in order to get accurate summaries from them.   --- Return to top.              How Will You Start?    The major section of WritingforCollege.org called "Starting" offers a number of useful ways to start thinking, speaking, and writing about a subject. The advice here, which follows, is for this chapter's type of paper in particular.  Starting by Reading Generally your very first focus should be on the text of the reading (or on the other subject) you will summarize.  To start, you may find your paper easier to write if you find a text that you understand easily and thoroughly.  You should be able to understand the text well enough not only in content, but also in structure, such that you can easily see its individual points.  You also must be able to treat it very objectively, without finding it upsetting.   This major section of WritingforCollege.org has, within it, five chapters discussing how to respond to texts in five specific ways.  Because you always must start with a text, all five chapters of these chapters have these three paragraphs in common.  To see more about how to start with a text, please go to the brief summary and resource page "How to Start Your Paper by Reading."  If you are not starting with a text but rather a subject, much of the same advice still applies.  In other words, be sure that you know your subject well.  Writing Your Summary When starting a summary paper, begin with a thorough reading.  If you have not yet carefully read "How to Start Your Paper by Reading," please do so now.  In a summary in particular, you need to read carefully for the structure the author is using.  Look for the main thesis or subject of the paper and the primary supporting reasons for this thesis.  Also take note of the author's tone, style, and intended audience. Once you have read your text, brainstorm your summary.  Imagine that you are a mirror on the wall, a pure observer who sees all and knows all without reacting.  Then provide the highlights of what you are summarizing.  If the author of what you are reading uses an emotional tone or style, do not reflect this.  You may mention it, especially if it is strong or obvious; however, your own tone should be objective, balanced, and logical.    You may brainstorm your first draft by simply writing as quickly and spontaneously as you can, recalling what you have read, or by writing a quick outline of the highlights of your text.  However, in writing a summary, it also is generally allowable to write step by step as you look at your text, if that is a comfortable way for you to start.   Some people find it helpful to imagine the audience--or one member of it--for whom you are writing, and then write the first draft as if to this group or person.  The style, tone, and voice you use in your first draft can be anything you want.  However, if you work better by focusing on an appropriate tone and style in a first draft, then for a summary paper, you should choose a tone of strict objectivity, balance, and reportage. You may begin your summary as you read, either in your first or second reading.  One way to work is to find, in any given paragraph of your text (or at the beginning of any given body section in it), a sentence that already summarizes that paragraph or section.  In long, well-developed paragraphs, this summarizing sentence may be at the very beginning or, sometimes, at the very end.  If you cannot find it in either of these places, then you can look for key words throughout the paragraph to figure out what that paragraph is saying.  Then all you have to do is change the wording of what you have found so that your summary is in your own words.  Observe how this structural approach works in the following example: Example of How to Find the Summarizing Elements in a Text Step 1: Look at the first sentence or two of each paragraph: does the first sentence summarize the paragraph? Example from Original Essay, "Fall Leaves," Paragraph 1: The trees in Minnesota in the fall can be beautiful.  They turn fiery shades of gold, red, and orange, flaming a bushy bundle of incandescence.  They flutter in the wind like a sea of flames. Example of  Summary Sentence 1: The leaves on Minnesota trees can be beautiful in the fall. Step 2:  If Step 1 doesn't work, look at the last sentence of the paragraph.  Does it summarize the paragraph? Essay Paragraph 2: Sometimes only an even shade of orange-yellow comes in the l.  Worse, sometimes the leaves gain only a dull yellow-green and then drop as if exhausted.  When this happens, it is because freezing temperatures have come slowly.  A hard freeze--or "cold snap"--is needed. Summary Sentence 2: A hard freeze is needed. Step 3: If the first or last sentence don't summarize, then use a few key words to summarize the overall intent of the paragraph. Essay Paragraph 3: Go outside, especially where children live.  Watch how they jump into the piles of leaves and pour them over each other's heads.  Look at the stark beauty of the final few colorful emblems of brightness as they fall from the barren trees.  Take delight in it all. Summary Sentence 3: Jumping in leaf piles and watching the final ones fall also are delightful.  Step 4: Place the summary sentences together and revise them using your own wording as much as possible.  Also fix the flow of the sentences, and add the name of the author and/or title. Example of Final Summary: "According to Richard Jewell in "Fall Leaves," looking at the beautiful leaves on Minnesota trees in the fall is pleasurable.  Only a hard freeze can create the more vivid colors.  Playing in the leaves and watching the last ones fall also are fun." Also be sure--as you build your paper--that you have plenty of quotations from the author so that the reader can see exactly how the author develops his/her thinking.  If you are assigned to do so, you may need quotations from other sources, as well, primarily to help support the points you are making.  Because you, yourself, are not a professional expert, you are depending--in a research paper--on quotations and paraphrases from the professional experts.  --- Return to top.           What Are Some Organizing Methods?    When organizing a summary, you may want to consider three practical matters.  Be aware of (1) the typical visual/textual design, (2) the central key to organizing this type of paper, and (3) dangers to avoid.  General principles of organization are described in detail in the "Organizing" chapter.  Specific details for this type of paper are below.   The "Introduction" has already shown you the following organization for a summary paper:     The Visual Plan or Map Unique Title                THE READING'S MAIN ARGUMENT/SUBJECT (1 sentence or 1 paragraph)                    Paragraph 1: the reading's 1st supporting reason and details Paragraph 2: the reading's 2nd supporting reason and details Paragraph 3: the reading's 3rd supporting reason and details Paragraphs 4-?: the reading's 4th-? supporting reason and details               READING'S CONCLUSIONS (1 sentence or 1 paragraph)               Here is a more detailed view of this structure.  This view is a visual and textual plan of how a summary generally looks when it is finished.   Detailed Visual Plan or Map Summary of The Reading's  Title*         THE READING'S MAIN ARGUMENT/SUBJECT, title (if not given in your own title), the author's full name, and the structure** used by the author [first one or two sentences of 1st paragraph, or one complete paragraph by itself]***         Paragraph 1 of Summary:**** the reading's 1st supporting reason and details (several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph, page, or chapter in the reading)  Paragraph 2 of Summary: the reading's 1st supporting reason and details (several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph, page, or chapter in the reading)  Paragraph 3 of Summary: the reading's 1st supporting reason and details (several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph, page, or chapter in the reading)  Paragraphs 4-? of Summary: the reading's 1st supporting reason and details (several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph, page, or chapter in the reading)          CENTRAL ARGUMENT/SUBJECT and author's final result/outcome/conclusion [last one or two sentences of last paragraph, or one complete paragraph by itself]***                       Bibliography [if required] Jones, A.J. Book Title, et al.             Notes about the Above Structure: *In a summary, a typical title often states "Summary of" and then the name of the text you have read.  The part of the title that names the text should use underlining (if the text is book) or quotation marks (if it is an essay).  Otherwise, in most academic disciplines, the title is typed simply: no quotation marks, underlining, or bold marking.  It is centered, and the font size and style are those used in the rest of the paper--normally a 12-point font in a style such as Times New Roman, Garamond, or CG Times.  In a professional situation, you may use academic style or whatever is commonly acceptable in your workplace. **Stating the structure can be as simple as saying, for example, that the text has a thesis structure (or, for example, that it is a psychological case study), or as complex as stating the three or four main supporting sections in a sentence each.  If something is to be said about a particularly noticeable tone, style, or set of details, it should be done as part of the discussion about structure (for example, "The tone of the paper is light-hearted and humorous, the style is more like that of a newspaper article than an academic paper, and the author uses numerous examples from her own experience").  However, be absolutely objective in such comments: never let your own opinion or feelings affect your summary of tone, style, or details. ***A very short summary needs only a very brief introductory sentence or two--and a very brief concluding sentence or two--that do not stand alone in their own paragraph.   ****Some summaries--such as an abstract or a précis--may be so short that they are written as one long paragraph (or possibly two).  If this is so, simply follow the directions above but join the sections together.  (Another alternative is to have a brief two-three sentence introduction, a body section of one long paragraph, and, optionally, a final two-three sentence conclusion.) The Key to Building a Summary Paper The key to the overall organization of a summary of a text is to take a structural approach in your second draft (and in your first, if you wish): First, decide how many sentences in length your summary should be.  If you're not sure, ask your instructor or coordinator.  (However, a summary should never be more than a third of the length of the text you have read and usually is much shorter.) Next, break your text into its major sections.  (Mark them by pencil or pen.)  Often there will be approximately three to five.  (A book may be divided into sections according to the number of chapters it has; alternatively, the chapters can be placed together in three or four major subheadings of the overall subject.) Third, divide to discover the number of sentences you should use to summarize each major section of the text.  For example, if your summary should be about twenty sentences in length and your text has four major sections, then your summary should use about five sentences per section. Dangers to Avoid as You Organize There are several dangers to avoid as you write a summary.  One of the dangers is copying the words of the text.  Academically, it is acceptable to use a key word when no other word will work; however, you should at all cost avoid using long phrases from the text, and even more so entire sentences.  If you do use them, you are guilty of plagiarism.  Plagiarism is the copying of someone else's work and claiming it as your own.  You commit plagiarism whether you do so on purpose or accidentally.  Plagiarism is considered a strong breach of academic ethics, and many instructors give students failing marks for plagiarism, even if unintended.  And if you are summarizing something in the professional world, you may be liable to lawsuit and other unpleasant consequences at work.   Another danger is not giving the author full credit.  Be sure to include both the title of the work (in your own summary's title or in its introduction) and the full name of the author (in the introduction).   A third danger is quoting a text.  In general, it is better to avoid quoting it--especially if your summary is short--as the entire idea of a summary is to use much briefer language than does the text.  Occasionally, the text may have a sentence that summarizes itself in a very short, clear form; in that case, you may be allowed to quote the text.  If so, be sure to use the proper form for quoting: [Author] says, "Quote" (page number).  See the chapter on "Quoting and Paraphrasing.")  If you are in doubt about whether an occasional quotation is acceptable, ask your instructor. A fourth danger is making a summary too long--or choosing a text that is too short.  There is little purpose in reading a summary if it is near the length of what it summarizes.  Generally, to be effective, a summary needs to be--at most--no more than one-third the length of what it summarizes, preferably much shorter.  If you are allowed to choose your own text to summarize, this means that you should be careful to choose something that is at least three times to five times as long as the length of your summary your instructor requires, and possibly quite longer.  Again, if you are unsure of the lengths of a required summary or the text you initially must read, ask your instructor. A final danger is allowing your own opinion to creep in.  Write objectively, fairly, and logically as if your paper were being written by the author of the text himself. ----- As you complete your later drafts, look carefully at the visual map above and the sample papers in this chapter.  Rearrange the order of your body sections and of your paragraphs as needed.  Consider your use of major organizing devices: for example, have you placed the correct key sentences in your introduction and conclusion, and have you developed a subtitle and topic sentence at the beginning of each major body section? --- Return to top.        Are There Special Revising and Editing Needs?    In revising a summary, the focus techniques with which you started in the Introduction to this chapter also can help you finish your paper:     FOUR FOCUSES FOR REVISING: Subject, Drafts, Style, & Authenticity SUBJECT: Be sure, in addition, to introduce, explain, or connect each quotation at least briefly (see the "Quoting & Paraphrasing" chapter in the "Researching" section) to the content of your discussion.  Have you also considered what kind of problem the author of your text presents and how each theory or viewpoint you use represents some kind of solution?  Can you help your readers perceive it in this way?   FIRST & SECOND DRAFTS: Have you used all of the needed steps to write and revise your drafts? Free-write: Try reading your paper aloud to see if it is choppy or has missing ideas.  If either is the case, trying rewriting the choppy parts freely, without copying what you've already written, or freewriting new paragraphs to complete your missing ideas. (To help cure choppy sentences, see "Using Mixed-Length Sentences" in "Editing.")  For general freewriting, see "How to Start First Drafts.")   Gather details: does your summary adequately represent the stories, facts, quotations, and other details the text uses to support its main thesis?  These details are important, too; often, a person who looks at your summary will have no idea how the text could arrive at its conclusions unless you also adequately summarize the major, important details supporting the text's arguments.  Add additional summarizing sentences as needed. Write for your audience: is your audience an instructor, a workplace coordinator, or your own peers?  Have you visualized your audience?  Have you read your paper aloud as if reading to this audience?  Have you tried reading your paper aloud to a friend or family member, pretending he or she is your audience? Organize: have you used the organizational pattern of having some kind of introduction (as shown above), conclusion, and a body?  Does your title or introduction state that your paper is a summary?  Does your introduction summarize, briefly, both the main thesis of the text and the structure of it?  Is your body divided into parts that represent, equally, the parts of the text? Does your summary, overall, make sense logically?  That is, will someone looking at your summary be able to easily identify the main thesis of the text, the reasons supporting this thesis, and the major details supporting the reasons?  Is you summary the correct length your instructor wants?   STYLE & TONE: Do all sentences in your summary convey an academic (not informal, casual, or newsy) style?  Does your summary flow well: i.e., does it avoid sounding choppy or awkward?  Have you used a tone or sound of voice (check this by reading your summary aloud, or having someone else read it aloud while you listen) that is logical, fair, free of prejudice, and balanced?   AUTHENTICITY: Sometimes knowing your audience can help you decide just what language to use in a summary: for example, you would use different language in summarizing something for junior-high students than you would for college students and instructors.  Have you developed a visual image of your audience?  Does your summary specifically address this audience, sentence by sentence, in your choice of words and phrases?  If not, rework some of your wording.  You may find it helpful to read your summary aloud to someone representing this audience.  Have you also been completely true to the content of the text by summarizing it as the author herself might do so?       For specific, line-by-line editing, a summary in particular needs several special elements: Repetition of "The author says": In a longer summary, it is tempting for those reading it to think that your words summarize your opinion of what the author said.  Thus it is wise to regularly remind your audience that you are simply repeating the author's ideas, not your own.  Doing so also reminds people that the summary does not necessarily represent your own beliefs, and it also reminds people that you are attempting to be strictly logical and accurate.  If for example, the author's last name were "Hanuman," you might use a phrase like this at least once in every paragraph, in or near its beginning: "According to Hanuman," "Hanuman says," "Hanuman believes that," "Hanuman argues that," "In Hanuman's opinion," etc. Deletion of all personal opinion: Check every sentence, word, and phrase to make sure that your own feelings, beliefs, or bias or prejudice against the author are removed. Brevity of phrasing: A summary by its very nature should be as economical--as efficiently short--as possible.  Check each sentence and ask yourself how you could remove words from it and change some phrases to shorter ones by using different words. Smooth flow: Summaries tend to be too choppy, and with good (if unfortunate) reason: they are artificial constructs built up sentence by sentence.  There is a tendency in writing them to make each sentence short, and a tendency to make most of the sentences about the same length.  Both of these make sentences sound choppy.  Read your summary aloud.  As you read, mark the places that seem choppy.  Then change this choppiness by joining some sentences together so that you have a good mixture of short, medium, and long sentences.  (For more discussion on how to cure choppiness and combine sentences, go to the chapter on "Editing.") You may or may not be required to use quotations.  (In fact, some brief, one paragraph summaries at the start of formal papers are not allowed to have quotations.)  If you do have quotations, remember that the typical quotation should, in many disciplines, have a statement of a source--a name or title--at its beginning; and, after it, there should be a page number (if the source is printed).  The typical paraphrase should have a source--a name or title--either before or after it, along with a page number (if any) afterwards.  In addition, quotations, paraphrases, and stories should not just be tossed into your paper: rather, they should be introduced by having a statement before and/or after each of its connection to what you are saying.  In summaries, you almost always should use the third-person pronoun: "he," "she," "it," and "they."  You should not use "you" unless you are giving directions, or writing a diary or personal reflection, or a less formal magazine or newsletter article or other specific advice (as in this chapter).  Paragraphing in most academic papers follows some relatively standard guidelines.  If you are writing a complete summary paper (not just a paragraph or two of summary at the beginning of a formal paper), then you will be working with a lot of information.  For this reason, clear, consistent paragraphing becomes even more important.  Also be careful not to have too many paragraphs per page.  If you have a lot of short, choppy paragraphs, then--if possible--combine some of them.  The goal, graphically speaking, is to provide your audience with a variety of paragraph lengths--an occasional short one for emphasis or change of pace added to a mix of varying medium and long paragraphs.  The goal in terms of content is to make your ideas flow so well that your audience can easily keep them clear and separate without ever even noticing your paragraphing (or, for that matter, any other mechanical aspect of your paper).  For more advice, go to the "Paragraphing" chapter.   Several other common, useful strategies of efficient, thorough editing are in the several chapters of the "Revising and Editing" section.  Some of these strategies also are summarized in the following very-brief web page:   Very Brief Review of How to Edit Your Final Draft --- Good luck with your writing of this type of paper.  For more advanced and/or interesting information on this type of paper, please see the "Advanced" section of the chapter. --- Return to top.