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Chapter 55. PROCESS/INSTRUCTIONS Basics of a Process Description and Set of Instructions --- Why?           Starting                                         Organizing                       Revising & Editing           --- Introduction This section explains the basics of writing and revising a process description and a related paper, a set of instructions.  You may want to first see the "Introduction" before reading this page.  Be sure, before or after reading this "Basics Page," to see "Sample Paper" by a student.            Why This Type of Paper?    The heart of a process description or set of instructions is a series of steps described in clear detail.  It is never an argument, story, or even a plain description shoved together into one or several long paragraphs.  To make the detail clear, the steps must not only be separated from each other but also supplemented with illustrations and/or lists or tables of sub-steps.  Here is a description of each of the two types of papers in turn, clearly showing how they are alike but different. A process description is useful in many professions as a way of introducing and reviewing a wide variety of processes.  A process description is a description, not of a benign object, but rather of a process or event: a step-by-step description of what happens or how someone or something moves or works.  It speaks in the present tense, describing the process: "first, this happens; next, that happens; third, what happens is...."  It generally avoids the personal pronouns I, you, he, and she.  A process description does not instruct someone or tell them what to do; instead, it simply describes what happens at each step.  A process description does not normally make any kind of argument or show any kind of opinion; rather, it simply describes how a factual process unfolds or occurs.  An example of a process description is a description of how a machine works automatically: first, its X part moves; next, its Y part activiates; third, its Z part begins.  A process description can describe human processes, too; however, they are treated as automatically as are the processes of a machine. Sets of instructions are also very common throughout the professions, from the simplest instructions to those that require book-length manuals.  They are meant for professionals learning or reviewing a job; however, they also are commonly used to instruct consumers.  A set of instruction is similar in its step-by-step nature to a process description.  However, it actually tells someone how to do something: "first, you do this; second, do that; third, that will cause this to happen, and fourth, you do that."  You use the word "you," and you use "command" verbs, telling people, however politely, to do something.  Instructions are not opinionated, nor do they report all the facts or details; they just tell people how to accomplish a specific goal or end.  Examples of instructions come with almost every piece of furniture, play equipment, or other objects that require assembly.  --- Return to top.              How Will You Start?    The major section of WritingforCollege.org called "Starting" offers a number of useful ways to start thinking, speaking, and writing about a subject. The advice here, which follows, is for this chapter's type of paper in particular.  Giving good descriptions and instructions is more difficult than it first appears.  Often, for example, we know the usual routes we take to work, relatives, or friends; however, if someone asks us to give instructions or describe such a route, we might find ourselves trying to describe the color of a building or house at an intersection that is kind of on a rise which must be several blocks down from the first or second stoplight.  Of course such directions would not help someone else very much.   We must learn to see through the readers' eyes so that we can understand how little they know and how clearly we must be in describing and naming details. When brainstorming a process description or set of instructions, imagine that you writing for a person who has no idea how what you are describing works.  Imagine yourself to be that person, if possible.  What steps will you describe, and how much detail will you offer in each step?  You can brainstorm by writing down a list of steps or details and then choose several to start.  You also can start by freewriting: simply writing down thoughts and/or images about what you must describe.  If you use outlining, you can state or summarize steps and sub-steps that you want to include.  If you are looking for a subject to develop into a process description of set of instructions, you might try listing possible subjects or even developing some interesting or wild opposite ideas--that is, try making up some fictions or strange processes.   One sometimes very fruitful method in developing a good process description or set of instructions is to image exactly what you can visually remember about your chosen process or activity.    Stretch, then sit back, relax, breathe, clear your mind.  Then ask yourself, "What images accurately demonstrate the core steps?"  You also can practice imaging by imagining your readers, or one typical reader, and writing your first draft for that person--how and what should he or she see in order to understand and utilize the steps?   The style, tone, or sense of audience you use in your early drafting can, of course, be anything you want, from icy logic to emotional response.  However, sooner or later, you will need to develop a courteous, efficient, and logical professional tone.  Your description should have a tone of confidence, helpfulness, and practicality in most situations.  The style should be formal or semiformal, unless you specifically have been told that an informal style is preferred.   You also may start with a sense of your audience, if you wish.  If you do, consider not only the immediate person(s) who might see your description or instructions, but also the wider network of peers, other supervisors, and/or committees who might read it, as well: how can you write the steps clearly so that all of these potential audience members will understand and picture your steps? In any case, write your first drafts however you wish.  Then revise as needed so that the appropriate tone, style, and sense of audience are evident in each paragraph and sentence.  Also be sure--as you build your paper--that you have plenty of details.  In professional writing, details may include quotations, paraphrases, personal-interview information, illustrations or images, and charts, lists, diagrams, or other statistics.  Be sure to cite and document each, even illustrations and experiential anecdotes, using in-text citation a bibliography.  --- Return to top.           What Are Some Organizing Methods?    When organizing a process description or set of instrucdtions, you may want to consider three practical matters.  Be aware of (1) the typical visual/textual design, (2) the central key to organizing this type of paper, and (3) dangers to avoid.  General principles of organization are described in detail in the "Organizing" chapter.  Specific details for this type of paper are below.   The "Introduction" has already shown you the following organization for a process description or set of instructions:     The Visual Plan or Map Unique Title                            TYPE OF PAPER, SPECIFIC PURPOSE, & INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY                               (A Background Definition/Description, if Needed)         Step 1         Step 2         Step 3         Step 4         Step 5, etc.                               CONCLUDING SUMMARY with EXPECTED RESULTS       ---                  Here is a more detailed view of this structure.  This view is a visual and textual plan of how a dialogic paper generally looks when it is finished.           More Detailed Visual Plan or Map     Unique Title                            Introduction**           Type of paper: "process description," "description of a process," or "instructions."  1-2 sent. on the occasion or purpose.      Summary           A reasonably brief paragraph describing the overall process or instructions can be added to the introduction or in a separate section, here, to help readers receive an initial holistic view of the process.      [1st Step]***           Break your paper into a series of steps in the most sensible and clearest order possible.  For each step, provide (a) a Subtitle and, if needed, SUB-SUBTITLES, (b) a summarizing topic sentence, (c) a description with systematic details, (d) specific supporting details (e.g. lists of what is needed, illustrations, et al.), and (e) a brief, concluding sentence.    [2nd Step]           See above, "1st Step."     [3rd Step]           See above, "1st Step."     [4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, etc. Steps]                     See above, "1st Step."              Conclusion            Summarize what the result should be and provide an illustration of it, if possible.  Also you may make suggestions for seeking additional help.                           Problem-Solving or Help Section             Consider offering a list or Question-and-Answer section to offer solutions to a list of potential problems or mistakes.      Bibliography [if Needed] Bitson, A.J. Book. et al. Jones, D. L. "Chart," et al. Smith, M. S. "Diagram," et al. Zamura, R.F. "Personal Interview," et al.       --- Several central keys to organizing are as follows: Description of a Process Consider your reader's level of reading ability and interest!  Use words they know and can read as easily as they might read a standard daily newspaper (or simpler yet).  Use a series of clear, simple steps for describing a process.  You may or may not want to use listing--either way can be appropriate. Illustrations can help process descriptions.  Once again, use a numbering system for the illustrations and refer to them by number in your text. Subtitles, sub-subtitles, and text enhancements may also be helpful.  However, if you use a numbering system for steps in the event, you may not need as many subtitles. Also keep your language at the technical level of the readers, and explain clearly any words that they might not understand. Instructions Remember in giving instructions that you must be clear at every step for every type of reader.  If a reader cannot understand one step, he or she might become stuck at that step.  Let your instructions be simple and clear enough to flow like water in the mind of the least alert of your readers. When giving instructions or directions, start at the very beginning--it is better to make instructions too simple than too difficult. Have a clear numbering system.  Use subtitles (and if necessary, a limited number of sub-subtitles) and text enhancement of words and titles to maintain reader interest and ease of reading. Provide illustrations frequently.  Number these illustrations.  Refer to them by number regularly in your text, too, so readers will seek them out and know where to find them. Listing also is helpful. ---                       Some dangers to avoid are as follows: If a step is difficult, break it into two or more smaller steps. Avoid having too many sub-steps, if possible--a large number of sub-steps may make the process or instructions seem more complex than they are.  Instead of sub-steps, simply have more major steps. Avoid complex language your readers will not understand.  If it cannot be avoided, then explain it clearly and carefully.  It usually is acceptable to place brief explanations and alternative words in parentheses right after the words they are defining. ----- As you complete your later drafts, look carefully at the visual map above and the sample paper in this chapter.  Rearrange the order of your steps and  paragraphs as needed.  Consider your use of major organizing devices: for example, have you placed the correct key sentences in your introduction and conclusion, and have you developed a subtitle and topic sentence at the beginning of each major body section?                                    Asterisks *, **, and *** for the organizational plan or map above (similar advice given in most chapters): *In most professions and businesses, the title is typed simply: no quotation marks, underlining, or bold marking.  It is centered, and the font size and style are those used in the rest of the paper--normally a 12-point font in a style such as Times New Roman, Garamond, or CG Times.  In a professional situation, you may use academic style or whatever is commonly acceptable in your workplace. ** In some disciplines, the "Introduction" subtitle may be optional or even forbidden.  (Most social sciences and psychology papers, for example, should not have an "Introduction" subtitle.)  ***Some professions and disciplines sometimes require a short summary, abstract, or précis (see) of a text before you begin responding to it.  Ask your instructor.  Such a summary generally should have no quotations within it and, in professional and business writing, it usually must be a summary of the contents of your paper.         ***Some instructors may allow--or even, occasionally, prefer--your paper to be completely free of subtitles.  In most professional and business situations, however, subtitles are required or encouraged.  That is because they are efficient.  Because of the expectation of efficiency, your topic sentences should be very brief, sometimes just a transition word, along with a key word from your title or your introduction's main statement of the paper's subject: for example, in a paper about a zoo, your three major topic sentences (at the beginning of each major topic section) might start with "First, the zoo...," "Second, the zoo...," and "Third, the zoo...").  (See "Topic Sentences.")  In addition, it is more efficient to add simple, short transition words than to avoid them.  Your word count may end up slightly higher, but your improved clarity will make your paper much easier to read.   For more about organizing body sections, topic sentences, and subtitles in general, please go to "Organizing College Papers."  For more about organizing paragraphs, go to the "Paragraphing" chapter. --- Return to top.        Are There Special Revising and Editing Needs? In revising a process description or set of instructions, the focus techniques with which you started in the Introduction to this chapter also can help you finish your paper: FOUR FOCUSES FOR REVISING: Subject, Drafts, Style, & Authenticity SUBJECT: Have you stayed on the subject throughout?  This means being sure that everything ties together logically, not just in your own mind but in the minds of readers.  You also should avoid adding details and thoughts ideas just because they are interesting.  In professional writing, be efficient in keeping to the subject at hand.  (If you have a really helpful or interesting detail that is indirectly related, place it in a brief footnote.)  If you think your audience may have trouble grasping some parts of your paper, add background or explanation.   Be sure, in addition, to introduce, explain, or connect each resource, if any to the content of your discussion.  This means that whether you have a quotation, paraphrase, graph, image, or copy of something from the Internet, be sure you have at least a sentence before and after it showing readers its purpose or fit in the flow of your paragraph.   FIRST & SECOND DRAFTS: Have you used all of the needed steps to write and revise your drafts? Free-write: If, after reading your paper aloud, you feel there are places where the paper sounds choppy or the flow is otherwise poor, try rewriting one or more paragraphs spontaneously without looking at your original words.  (To help cure choppy sentences, see "Using Mixed-Length Sentences" in the "Editing" section.")  Imagine you are saying it aloud to a friend, instructor, or work coordinator.  Then revise and edit the new portions.  For general freewriting, see "How to Start First Drafts.")   Gather details: Have you spent too much time on general explanation and too little on details?  Details--names, dates, data, charts, lists, diagrams, illustrations, and/or quotations and paraphrase--are the proofs of a good professional paper.  They also are the first elements your readers tend to notice and the ones they will most remember, whether in the same kind of detail or with a strong sense of you having supported your points well.       If you have too many details for one section, consider dividing the section into two sections or subsections.  Instead, you might try moving some of the details to another section where they might fit as well or better.        Write for your audience: Imagine your audience as being more than your immediate supervisor or instructor.  To whom might your supervisor show this paper?  What committee(s) might see it?  A good professional paper can travel far, and it may even be the basis of legal action, good or bad, or the basis of a proposals, profits, or losses.  Have you visualized your audience?       Have you read your paper aloud as if reading to this audience?  Have you tried reading your paper aloud to a colleague, peer, friend, or family member, pretending he or she is your audience?  If you are working with others in a pair or committee, have you asked them to read, comment on, and help rewrite it?  Organize: Have you used either the organization above or a modified version of it suggested by your supervisor or instructor?  Have you carefully added and then reread each major and minor part of this organizational system?  Have you kept your introduction, conclusion, and/or a beginning summary reasonably short, moving excess discussion in them to body sections?  Do you need to reorganize the body sections for the greatest degree of logic, clarity, and audience interest?  Does each body section fulfill its purpose as expected with this type of paper as applied to your particular discipline or profession? Research: iF you need to support your points and/or others' points with research, do you have a sufficient number of high-quality sources?  Have you fully integrated them with your paper by citing and documenting them?  (In most disciplines or professions, "citing" means adding authors' names and page numbers beside quotations, paraphrases, graphic elements--e.g., pictures or charts--and anecdotes of experiences.  "Documenting" means providing a bibliography--or, if you have just a very few sources, you sometimes are allowed to provide bibliographic details in parentheses immediately after source material or in a footnote.)      If you are using non-print sources such as interviews, videos, or television, will they be considered appropriate and representative (well representing a viewpoint needed and accepted by your audience?  If you are using online sources, have you checked them carefully to verify their quality and accuracy (see "Evaluating Web Sites" in OnlineGrammar.org)? STYLE, TONE, AUDIENCE, & CRITICAL THINKING: Have you converted all parts of your writing to the appropriate style and tone?  This type of paper should use a formal professional writing style.  If your audience and purpose are of a more general nature (rather than of an academic or scholarly nature), then you may want to use a more efficient business style of writing with a mixture of medium and short sentences, and varied medium and short paragraphs.  Generally, in professional and business writing, the tone or voice in your words should show professional competence, honesty, and confidence.  Warmth may or may not be helpful, depending on your audience, but coldness, sarcasm, or emotionalism should be avoided.  To check tone or voice, try reading your paper aloud--or have a colleague, peer, or friend read it aloud to you--so you can hear whether your sentences sound as you want them to..  AUTHENTICITY: Have you made your paper as reasonable, practicable, and logical as possible to your audience?  If you're not sure, ask questions of your audience ahead of time, and imagine how your audience member(s) might want elements of your paper explained to them.  Have you tried to go to the heart of the matter you are discussing?  Have you brought interesting, vivid, and even unusual details into the paper's contents?  Have you been true to yourself and your own interests in the subject by trying to find the most interesting information to write about in each paragraph, something meaningful to you?   --- Final Advice Given in Most Chapters In most papers, you should use the third-person pronoun: "he," "she," "it," and "they."  You should not use "you" unless you are giving directions, or writing a diary or personal reflection, or a less formal magazine or newsletter article or other specific advice (as in this chapter).  In professional writing, "I" is never used (unless occasionally in the form of an anecdote, starting with a phrase such as "For example, I was..."). Paragraphing in most academic papers follows some relatively standard guidelines.  You usually are working with a large amount of information when you write a professional paper.  For this reason, clear, consistent paragraphing becomes even more important.  Your paragraphs should help you logically divide your body sections into smaller sub-parts, ideas, or sub-ideas--just for the sake of clarity and ease of reading, if for no other reason.  Also, generally, for a short- to medium-length paper, you should have one paragraph each for your introduction, conclusion, and--if you have it--your summary.  You should, as a matter of habit, have at least two or three paragraphs per page in your final draft.  On the other hand, be careful not to have too many paragraphs per page.  If you have a lot of short, choppy paragraphs, combine them.  The goal, graphically speaking, is to provide your audience with a variety of paragraph lengths--an occasional short one for emphasis or change of pace added to a mix of varying medium and long paragraphs.  The goal in terms of content is to make your ideas flow so well that your audience can easily keep them clear and separate without ever even noticing your paragraphing (or, for that matter, any other mechanical aspect of your paper).  For more advice, go to the "Paragraphing" chapter.   Several other common, useful strategies of efficient, thorough editing are in the several chapters of the "Revising and Editing" section.  Some of these strategies also are summarized in the following very-brief web page, which is aimed especially at people writing professionally and/or in their majors:   Very Brief Review of How to Edit Your Final Draft --- Good luck with writing this type of paper.  For more advanced and/or interesting information on this type of paper, please see one or more of the chapters on the right of OnlineGrammar.org.  --- Return to top.

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