Chapter
26. SUMMARY
Introduction
Basics
Advanced
Samples
Activities
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Basics of
Summarizing ---
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Introduction
This section explains the basics of writing and
revising a summary--why summarizing exists and how to start, organize, and edit it.
You may want to first see the "Introduction"
before reading this page. Be sure, before or after reading this "Basics Page," to
see "Sample Papers"
by students. For more advanced information, go to "Advanced Methods."
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Why
This Type of Paper? |
The heart
of a summary is a completely logical, unbiased, unemotional
reflection, in shorter form, of a text (or whatever else is being
summarized). It never is an opportunity to disagree or be upset with what
is being summarized, nor to conveniently (or even accidentally) leave out
something the author of the text might consider important. It is an
image of the text it summarizes, much like looking through the wrong end of
binoculars or a telescope: someone looking at your summary will see a smaller
picture of the original reading itself, just as the author would see it. In real
life, of course, being this perfectly objective is impossible. However,
the goal of good summary writing is to put aside one's own beliefs and feelings
about a text and, to the extent possible, write the summary as the author
herself would. At first glance people think summary writing is a simple
skill. However, because a person must put aside her own prejudices and
also see with the eye, mind, and heart of the author of a text, writing a
good summary can be a sophisticated intellectual undertaking.
Summary writing has many uses in college and the professional world. In academic
courses, it is useful for briefly describing the contents of a text, speech, or
similar activity or event. In college, for example,
there are summaries of social or psychological interactions and cases, of
experiments (e.g., a "lab report"), and of scientific and engineering
activities (a "scientific poster"). Sometimes, when you read a
book and write about it, you are expected to start your paper with a brief
summary of it (e.g., see "Critical
Review"
and "Literary Review"). There are at least three good reasons why such
descriptions are important in academic writing. First, they let your audience know what you have
read or observed. Second, they convey this material to your audience in a brief,
easily understandable form. Third, your strict accuracy in summarizing
demonstrates your academic commitment to fairness, balance, and reason--all of
which are important academic qualities that improve your ability to think and
demonstrate your thinking to your instructors.
In the professional world, summary writing also is an important
skill. The summary-writing skills of accuracy, brevity, and fairness also are important
to companies and service organizations in business reports and proposals, case
management, and other professional writings. You may be called upon to summarize
business or professional writings, research, or raw data, or you may be asked to summarize
events, activities, people's resumes, or professional or workplace problems.
Summaries of academic texts, court documents, business documents,
people, places, and events are needed frequently, and some professional papers
in science and in business, in particular, require "abstracts," which
are simply a type of summary (see "Recommendation
Report"). Whichever you may need to do, learning to summarize fully and fairly
will give you a reputation for being balanced, efficient, and accurate.
In addition, in their personal lives, people
regularly summarize experiences when talking with others. Even in personal
life, knowing how to offer a thorough, balanced, logical summary is quite
helpful in understanding and explaining events to others and in knowing how to
ask questions of others in order to get accurate summaries from them.
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The major section of WritingforCollege.org called "Starting"
offers a number of useful ways to start thinking, speaking, and writing about a
subject. The advice here, which follows, is for this chapter's type of paper in particular.
Starting by Reading
Generally your very first focus should be on the text of the reading (or on the
other subject) you will summarize. To start, you may find
your paper easier to write if you find a text that you understand easily and
thoroughly. You should be able to understand the text well enough not only
in content, but also in structure, such that you can easily see its individual
points. You also must be able to treat it very objectively, without
finding it upsetting.
This major section of WritingforCollege.org has, within it, five chapters discussing how to respond to texts
in five specific ways. Because you always must
start with a text, all five chapters of these chapters have these three
paragraphs in common. To see
more about how to start with a text, please
go to the brief summary and resource page "How
to Start Your Paper by Reading."
If you are not starting with a text but rather
a subject, much of the same advice still applies. In other words, be sure that you know your subject
well.
Writing Your Summary
When
starting a summary paper, begin with a thorough reading.
If you have not yet carefully read "How
to Start Your Paper by Reading," please do so now. In a summary in particular, you need to read carefully
for the structure the author is using. Look for the main thesis or subject
of the paper and the primary supporting reasons for this thesis. Also take
note of the author's tone, style, and intended audience.
Once you have read your text, brainstorm your summary.
Imagine that you are a mirror on the wall, a pure observer who sees
all and knows all without reacting. Then provide the highlights of what
you are summarizing. If the author of what you are reading uses an
emotional tone or style, do not reflect this. You may mention it,
especially if it is strong or obvious; however, your own tone should be
objective, balanced, and logical.
You
may brainstorm your first draft by simply writing as quickly and spontaneously
as you can, recalling what you have read, or by writing a quick outline of the
highlights of your text. However, in writing a summary, it also is
generally allowable to write step by step as you look at your text, if that is a
comfortable way for you to start.
Some people find it helpful to imagine the audience--or one member of it--for
whom you are writing, and then write the first draft as if to this group or
person. The style, tone, and voice you use in your first draft can be
anything you want. However, if you work better by focusing on an
appropriate tone and style in a first draft, then for a summary paper, you
should choose a tone of strict objectivity, balance, and reportage.
You may begin your summary as you read,
either in your first or second reading. One way to work is to find, in any given paragraph of your
text (or at the beginning
of any given body section in it), a sentence that already summarizes that
paragraph or section. In long, well-developed paragraphs, this summarizing
sentence may be at the very beginning or, sometimes, at the very end. If
you cannot find it in either of these places, then you can look for key words
throughout the paragraph to figure out what that paragraph is saying. Then
all you have to do is change the wording of what you have found so that your
summary is in your own words. Observe how this structural approach works
in the following example:
Example
of How to Find the Summarizing Elements in a Text
Step 1: Look at the first sentence or two of each
paragraph: does the first sentence summarize the paragraph? |
Example from Original Essay, "Fall Leaves," Paragraph
1: The trees in Minnesota in the fall can be beautiful. They
turn fiery shades of gold, red, and orange, flaming a bushy bundle of
incandescence. They flutter in the wind like a sea of flames. |
Example of Summary Sentence 1:
The leaves on
Minnesota trees can be beautiful in the fall. |
Step 2: If Step 1
doesn't work, look at the last sentence of the paragraph. Does it
summarize the paragraph? |
Essay Paragraph
2: Sometimes only an even shade of orange-yellow comes in the l.
Worse, sometimes the leaves gain only a dull yellow-green and then drop as
if exhausted. When this happens, it is because freezing temperatures
have come slowly. A hard freeze--or "cold snap"--is
needed. |
Summary Sentence 2:
A
hard freeze is needed. |
Step 3: If the first or
last sentence don't summarize, then use a few key words to summarize the
overall intent of the paragraph. |
Essay Paragraph
3: Go outside, especially where children live. Watch how they
jump into the piles of leaves and pour them over each other's heads.
Look at the stark beauty of the final few colorful emblems of brightness
as they fall from the barren trees. Take delight in it all. |
Summary Sentence 3:
Jumping in leaf piles and watching the final ones fall also are
delightful. |
Step 4:
Place the summary sentences together and revise them using your own
wording as much as possible. Also fix the flow of the sentences, and
add the name of the author and/or title. |
Example of Final
Summary:
"According to Richard Jewell in "Fall
Leaves," looking at the beautiful leaves on Minnesota trees in the
fall is pleasurable. Only a hard freeze can create the more vivid
colors. Playing in the leaves and watching the last ones fall also
are fun." |
Also be
sure--as you build your paper--that you have plenty of quotations from the
author so that the reader can see exactly how the author develops his/her
thinking. If you are assigned to do so, you may need quotations from other
sources, as well, primarily to help support the points you are making.
Because you, yourself, are not a professional expert, you are depending--in a
research paper--on quotations and paraphrases from the professional experts.
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When
organizing a summary, you may want to consider three
practical matters. Be aware of
(1) the typical visual/textual design, (2)
the
central key to organizing this type of paper, and (3) dangers to
avoid. General principles of organization are described in detail in
the "Organizing"
chapter. Specific details for this type of paper are below.
The
"Introduction" has
already shown you the following organization for a summary paper:
The
Visual Plan or Map
THE READING'S MAIN ARGUMENT/SUBJECT
(1 sentence or 1 paragraph)
|
Paragraph
1: the reading's 1st supporting reason and details
|
Paragraph
2: the reading's 2nd supporting
reason and details
|
Paragraph
3: the reading's 3rd supporting
reason and details
|
Paragraphs
4-?: the reading's 4th-? supporting
reason and details
|
READING'S CONCLUSIONS
(1 sentence or 1
paragraph)
|
Here is a more detailed view of this
structure. This view is a visual and textual plan of how a summary generally looks when it is finished.
Detailed Visual Plan or Map
Summary of The
Reading's
Title*
|
THE
READING'S
MAIN ARGUMENT/SUBJECT, title (if not given in your own title), the
author's full name, and the structure** used by the author [first
one or two sentences of 1st paragraph, or one complete paragraph by
itself]*** |
Paragraph 1 of Summary:**** the reading's 1st
supporting reason and details
(several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph,
page, or chapter in the reading)
|
Paragraph 2 of Summary: the reading's 1st
supporting reason and details
(several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph,
page, or chapter in the reading)
|
Paragraph 3 of Summary: the reading's 1st
supporting reason and details
(several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph,
page, or chapter in the reading)
|
Paragraphs 4-? of Summary: the reading's 1st
supporting reason and details
(several sentences, each of which summarizes a paragraph,
page, or chapter in the reading)
|
CENTRAL ARGUMENT/SUBJECT and author's final result/outcome/conclusion
[last one or two sentences of last paragraph,
or one complete paragraph by itself]***
|
Bibliography [if required]
Jones, A.J. Book Title, et al. |
Notes about the
Above Structure:
*In a
summary, a typical title often states "Summary of" and then the name
of the text you have read. The part of the title that names the text should use
underlining (if the text is book) or quotation marks (if it is an
essay). Otherwise, in
most academic disciplines, the title is typed simply: no quotation marks,
underlining, or bold marking. It is centered, and the font size and
style are those used in the rest of the paper--normally a 12-point font
in a style such as Times New Roman, Garamond, or
CG Times. In a professional situation, you may use academic style or
whatever is commonly acceptable in your workplace.
**Stating the structure can be as simple as saying,
for example, that the text has a thesis structure (or, for example, that it is a
psychological case study), or as complex as stating the three or four main
supporting sections in a sentence each. If something is to be said about a
particularly noticeable tone, style, or set of details, it should be done as
part of the discussion about structure (for example, "The tone of the paper is
light-hearted and humorous, the style is more like that of a newspaper article
than an academic paper, and the author uses numerous examples from her own
experience"). However, be absolutely objective in such comments: never let
your own opinion or feelings affect your summary of tone, style, or details.
***A very short summary needs only a very brief
introductory sentence or two--and a very brief concluding sentence or two--that
do not stand alone in their own paragraph.
****Some summaries--such as an abstract or a
précis--may be so short that they are written as one long paragraph (or possibly
two). If this is so, simply follow the directions above but join the
sections together. (Another alternative is to have a brief two-three
sentence introduction, a body section of one long paragraph, and, optionally, a
final two-three sentence conclusion.)
The Key to Building a Summary Paper
The key to the overall organization of a summary of
a text is to take a structural approach in your second draft (and in your first,
if you wish):
-
First, decide how many sentences in length your summary should be.
If you're not sure, ask your instructor or coordinator. (However, a
summary should never be more than a third of the length of the text you have
read and
usually is much shorter.)
-
Next, break your text into its major sections. (Mark them by
pencil or pen.) Often there will be approximately three to five.
(A book may be divided into sections according to the number of chapters it
has; alternatively, the chapters can be placed together in three or four
major subheadings of the overall subject.)
-
Third, divide to discover the number of sentences you should use to
summarize each major section of the text. For example, if your
summary should be about twenty sentences in length and your text has four
major sections, then your summary should use about five sentences per
section.
Dangers to Avoid as You Organize
There are several dangers to avoid as you write a summary. One of the dangers
is copying the words of the text. Academically, it is
acceptable to use a key word when no other word will work; however, you should
at all cost avoid using long phrases from the text, and even more so entire
sentences. If you do use them, you are guilty of plagiarism.
Plagiarism is the copying of someone else's work and claiming it as your
own. You commit plagiarism whether you do so on purpose or
accidentally. Plagiarism is considered a strong breach of academic ethics,
and many instructors give students failing marks for plagiarism, even if
unintended. And if you are summarizing something in the professional
world, you may be liable to lawsuit and other unpleasant consequences at
work.
Another danger is not giving the author full credit. Be sure to
include both the title of the work (in your own summary's title or in its
introduction) and the full name of the author (in the introduction).
A third danger
is quoting a text. In general, it is better to
avoid quoting it--especially if your summary is short--as the entire idea of a
summary is to use much briefer language than does the text.
Occasionally, the text may have a sentence that summarizes itself in a very
short, clear form; in that case, you may be allowed to quote the text.
If so, be sure to use the proper form for quoting: [Author] says,
"Quote" (page number). See the chapter on "Quoting
and Paraphrasing.") If you are in doubt about whether an
occasional quotation is acceptable, ask your instructor.
A fourth danger is making a summary too long--or choosing a text that
is too short. There is little purpose in reading a summary if it is near
the length of what it summarizes. Generally, to be effective, a summary
needs to be--at most--no more than one-third the length of what it
summarizes, preferably much shorter. If you are allowed to choose your own
text to summarize, this means that you should be careful to choose something that is
at least three times to five times as long as the length of your summary your
instructor requires, and possibly quite longer. Again, if you are unsure
of the lengths of a required summary or the text you initially must read, ask your instructor.
A final danger is allowing your own opinion to creep in. Write
objectively, fairly, and logically as if your paper were being written by the
author of the text himself.
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As you complete your later drafts, look carefully at the visual map above and
the sample papers in this chapter. Rearrange the order of your body
sections and of your paragraphs as needed. Consider your use of major
organizing devices: for example, have you placed the correct key sentences in
your introduction and conclusion, and have you developed a subtitle and topic
sentence at the beginning of each major body section?
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Are There Special Revising and Editing Needs? |
In
revising
a summary, the focus techniques
with which you started in the Introduction to this
chapter also can help you finish your paper:
FOUR FOCUSES FOR REVISING:
Subject,
Drafts, Style, & Authenticity
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SUBJECT: Be sure, in addition, to introduce, explain,
or connect each quotation at least briefly (see the "Quoting
& Paraphrasing" chapter
in the "Researching" section) to the content of your
discussion. Have you also considered what
kind of problem the author of your text presents and how each theory or
viewpoint you use represents some kind of solution? Can you help
your readers perceive it in this way? |
|
FIRST & SECOND DRAFTS: Have
you used all of the needed steps to write and revise your drafts?
-
Free-write: Try reading your paper aloud to see if it is
choppy or has missing ideas. If either is the case, trying rewriting the choppy parts freely,
without copying what you've already written, or freewriting new
paragraphs to complete your missing ideas. (To help cure
choppy sentences, see "Using
Mixed-Length Sentences" in "Editing.")
For general freewriting, see "How
to Start First Drafts.")
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Gather details: does your summary
adequately represent the stories, facts, quotations, and other details
the text uses to support its main thesis? These details are
important, too; often, a person who looks at your summary will have no
idea how the text could arrive at its conclusions unless you also
adequately summarize the major, important details supporting the
text's arguments. Add additional summarizing sentences as
needed.
-
Write for your audience: is your
audience an instructor, a workplace coordinator, or your own peers?
Have you visualized your audience? Have you read your paper
aloud as if reading to this audience? Have you tried reading
your paper aloud to a friend or family member, pretending he or she is
your audience?
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Organize: have you used the
organizational pattern of having some kind of introduction (as shown
above), conclusion, and a body? Does your title or introduction
state that your paper is a summary? Does your introduction
summarize, briefly, both the main thesis of the text and the structure
of it? Is your body divided into parts that represent, equally,
the parts of the text? Does your summary, overall, make sense
logically? That is, will someone looking at your summary be able
to easily identify the main thesis of the text, the reasons supporting
this thesis, and the major details supporting the reasons? Is
you summary the correct length your instructor wants?
|
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STYLE & TONE: Do all sentences in your summary
convey an academic (not informal, casual, or newsy) style?
Does your summary flow well: i.e., does it avoid sounding choppy or
awkward? Have you used a tone or sound of voice (check this by
reading your summary aloud, or having someone else read it aloud
while you listen) that is logical, fair, free of prejudice, and
balanced? |
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AUTHENTICITY: Sometimes knowing your audience
can help you decide just what language to use in a summary: for example, you
would use different language in summarizing something for
junior-high students than you would for college students and
instructors. Have you developed a visual image
of your
audience? Does your summary specifically address this
audience, sentence by sentence, in your choice of words and
phrases? If not, rework some of your wording. You may
find it helpful to read your summary aloud to someone representing
this audience. Have you also been completely true to
the content of the text by summarizing it as the author herself
might do so? |
For specific,
line-by-line editing, a summary in particular needs several special
elements:
-
Repetition of "The author says": In a
longer summary, it is tempting for those reading it to think that your words
summarize your opinion of what the author said. Thus it is wise to
regularly remind your audience that you are simply repeating the author's
ideas, not your own. Doing so also reminds people that the summary
does not necessarily represent your own beliefs, and it also reminds people
that you are attempting to be strictly logical and accurate. If for
example, the author's last name were "Hanuman," you might use a
phrase like this at least once in every paragraph, in or near its beginning:
"According to Hanuman," "Hanuman says," "Hanuman
believes that," "Hanuman argues that," "In Hanuman's
opinion," etc.
-
Deletion of all personal opinion: Check every
sentence, word, and phrase to make sure that your own feelings, beliefs, or
bias or prejudice against the author are removed.
-
Brevity of phrasing: A summary by its very nature
should be as economical--as efficiently short--as possible. Check each
sentence and ask yourself how you could remove words from it and change some
phrases to shorter ones by using different words.
-
Smooth flow: Summaries tend to be
too choppy, and with
good (if unfortunate) reason: they are artificial constructs built up sentence by
sentence. There is a tendency in writing them to make each sentence
short, and a tendency to make most of the sentences about the same
length. Both of these make sentences sound choppy. Read your
summary aloud. As you read, mark the places that seem choppy.
Then change this choppiness by joining some sentences together so that you
have a good mixture of short, medium, and long sentences. (For more
discussion on how to cure choppiness and combine sentences, go to the
chapter on "Editing.")
You may or may not be required to use quotations.
(In fact, some brief, one paragraph summaries at the start of formal papers are
not allowed to have quotations.) If you do have quotations,
remember that the typical quotation should, in many disciplines, have a
statement of a source--a name or title--at its beginning; and, after it, there
should be a page number (if the source is printed). The typical paraphrase
should have a source--a name or title--either before or after it, along with a
page number (if any) afterwards. In addition, quotations, paraphrases, and
stories should not just be tossed into your paper: rather, they should be
introduced by having a statement before and/or after each of its connection to
what you are saying.
In summaries, you almost always should use the third-person
pronoun: "he," "she," "it," and "they." You should not use "you"
unless you
are giving directions, or writing a diary or personal reflection, or a less
formal magazine or newsletter article or other specific advice (as in this
chapter).
Paragraphing in most academic papers follows some relatively standard guidelines.
If you are writing a complete summary paper (not just a paragraph or two of
summary at the beginning of a formal paper), then you will be working with a lot of information. For this
reason, clear, consistent paragraphing becomes even more important.
Also be careful not to have too many paragraphs per page. If you have a lot of
short, choppy paragraphs, then--if possible--combine some of them. The goal, graphically speaking,
is to provide your audience with a variety of paragraph lengths--an
occasional short one for emphasis or change of pace added to a mix of varying
medium and long paragraphs. The goal in terms of content is to make your
ideas flow so well that your audience can easily keep them clear and separate
without ever even noticing your paragraphing (or, for that matter, any other
mechanical aspect of your paper).
For more advice, go to the "Paragraphing"
chapter.
Several other common, useful strategies
of efficient, thorough editing are in the several chapters of the "Revising
and Editing" section. Some of these strategies also are summarized
in the following very-brief web page:
Very Brief
Review of How
to Edit Your Final Draft
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Good luck with your writing of this type of paper.
For more advanced and/or interesting information on this type of paper, please
see the "Advanced"
section of the chapter.
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