Chapter 55. PROCESS/INSTRUCTIONS
Basics of
a Process Description and Set of Instructions ---
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Introduction
This section explains the basics of writing and
revising a process description and a related paper, a set of instructions.
You may want to first see the "Introduction"
before reading this page. Be sure, before or after reading this "Basics Page," to
see "Sample Paper"
by a student.
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Why
This Type of Paper? |
The heart
of a process description or set of instructions is a series of steps
described in clear detail. It is never an argument, story, or even a plain
description shoved together into one or several long paragraphs. To make
the detail clear, the steps must not only be separated from each other but also
supplemented with illustrations and/or lists or tables of sub-steps.
Here is a description of each of the two types of papers in turn, clearly
showing how they are alike but different.
A process description is useful in many professions as a way of
introducing and reviewing a wide variety of processes. A process description
is a description, not of a benign object, but
rather of a process or event: a
step-by-step description of what happens or how someone or something moves or
works. It speaks in the present tense,
describing the process: "first, this happens; next, that happens; third, what
happens is...." It generally avoids the personal pronouns I, you, he, and
she.
A process description does not
instruct someone or tell them what to do; instead, it simply describes what
happens at each step. A process description does not normally make any
kind of argument or show any kind of opinion; rather, it simply describes how a
factual process unfolds or occurs. An example of a process description is
a description of how a machine works automatically: first, its X part moves;
next, its Y part activiates; third, its Z part begins. A process
description can describe human processes, too; however, they are treated as
automatically as are the processes of a machine.
Sets of instructions
are also very common throughout the professions, from the simplest instructions
to those that require book-length manuals. They are meant for
professionals learning or reviewing a job; however, they also are commonly used
to instruct consumers. A set of instruction is similar in its step-by-step
nature to a process description. However, it actually tells someone how to
do something: "first, you do this; second, do that; third, that will cause this
to happen, and fourth, you do that." You use the word "you," and you use
"command" verbs, telling people, however politely, to do something.
Instructions are not
opinionated, nor do they report all the facts or details; they just tell people
how to accomplish a specific goal or end. Examples of instructions come
with almost every piece of furniture, play equipment, or other objects that
require assembly.
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The major section of WritingforCollege.org called "Starting"
offers a number of useful ways to start thinking, speaking, and writing about a
subject. The advice here, which follows, is for this chapter's type of paper in particular.
Giving good descriptions and instructions is more difficult than it first
appears. Often, for example, we know the usual routes we take to work,
relatives, or friends; however, if someone asks us to give instructions or
describe such a route, we might find ourselves trying to describe the color of a
building or house at an intersection that is kind of on a rise which must be
several blocks down from the first or second stoplight.
Of course such directions would not help someone else very much.
We must learn to see through the readers' eyes so that we can understand
how little they know and how clearly we must be in describing and naming
details.
When brainstorming a
process description or set of instructions, imagine that you writing
for a person who has no idea how what you are describing works. Imagine
yourself to be that person, if possible. What steps will you describe, and
how much detail will you offer in each step?
You can brainstorm by writing down a
list of
steps or details and then choose several to start. You also can start by
freewriting:
simply writing down thoughts and/or images about what you must describe.
If you use
outlining,
you can state or summarize steps and sub-steps that you want to include.
If you are looking for a subject to develop into a process description of set of
instructions, you might try listing possible subjects or even developing some interesting or wild opposite
ideas--that is, try making up some
fictions
or strange processes. One sometimes very fruitful method in
developing a good process description or set of instructions is to
image
exactly what you can visually remember about your chosen process or
activity.
Stretch, then sit back, relax, breathe,
clear your mind. Then ask yourself, "What images accurately
demonstrate the core steps?" You also can practice
imaging by imagining your
readers,
or one typical reader, and writing your first draft for that person--how and
what should he or she see in order to understand and utilize the steps?
The
style,
tone,
or sense of
audience you use in your early drafting can, of course, be
anything you want, from icy logic to emotional response. However, sooner
or later, you will need to develop a courteous, efficient, and logical professional
tone.
Your description should have a tone
of confidence, helpfulness,
and practicality in most situations. The
style should be formal
or semiformal, unless you specifically have been told that an
informal style is preferred.
You also may start with a sense of your
audience,
if you wish. If you do, consider not only the immediate person(s) who
might see your description or instructions, but also the wider network of peers, other supervisors,
and/or committees who might read it, as well: how can you write the steps
clearly so that all of these potential audience members will understand and
picture your steps?
In any case, write your first drafts however you
wish. Then revise as needed so that the appropriate tone, style, and sense
of audience are evident in each paragraph and sentence.
Also be
sure--as you build your paper--that you have plenty of details. In
professional writing, details may include quotations, paraphrases,
personal-interview information, illustrations or images, and charts, lists,
diagrams, or other statistics. Be sure to cite and document each, even
illustrations and experiential anecdotes, using in-text citation a bibliography.
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When
organizing a process description or set of instrucdtions, you may want to consider three
practical matters. Be aware of
(1) the typical visual/textual design, (2)
the
central key to organizing this type of paper, and (3) dangers to
avoid. General principles of organization are described in detail in
the "Organizing"
chapter. Specific details for this type of paper are below.
The
"Introduction"
has already shown you the following organization for a process description or
set of instructions:
The
Visual Plan or Map
TYPE
OF PAPER,
SPECIFIC PURPOSE, &
INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY
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(A
Background Definition/Description, if Needed)
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Step 1
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Step 2
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Step 3
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Step 4
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Step 5, etc.
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CONCLUDING SUMMARY with
EXPECTED RESULTS
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Here is a more detailed view of this
structure. This view is a visual and textual plan of how a dialogic paper generally looks when it is finished.
More Detailed Visual Plan or Map
Introduction**
Type
of paper: "process description," "description of a
process," or "instructions."
1-2 sent. on the occasion or purpose.
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Summary
A reasonably
brief paragraph describing the overall process or instructions can be
added to the introduction or in a separate section, here, to help
readers receive an initial holistic view of the process. |
[1st Step]***
Break your paper
into a series of steps in the most sensible and clearest order possible.
For each step, provide (a)
a Subtitle and, if needed, SUB-SUBTITLES, (b)
a summarizing topic sentence, (c) a
description with systematic details,
(d) specific
supporting details (e.g.
lists of what is needed, illustrations, et al.), and (e) a brief, concluding sentence.
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[2nd Step]
See above, "1st Step."
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[3rd Step]
See above, "1st Step."
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[4th,
5th, 6th, 7th, etc. Steps]
See above, "1st Step."
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Conclusion
Summarize what the result should be and provide an illustration of it,
if possible. Also you may make suggestions for seeking additional
help.
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Problem-Solving or Help Section
Consider offering
a list or Question-and-Answer section to offer solutions to a list of
potential problems or mistakes. |
Bibliography
[if Needed]
Bitson, A.J. Book. et al.
Jones, D. L. "Chart," et al.
Smith, M. S. "Diagram," et al.
Zamura, R.F. "Personal Interview," et al. |
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Several central keys to organizing are as follows:
Description
of a Process
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Consider your reader's level of reading ability and interest!
Use words they know and can read as easily as they might read a standard daily
newspaper (or simpler yet).
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Use a series of clear,
simple steps for describing a process. You
may or may not want to use listing--either way can be appropriate.
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Illustrations can help
process descriptions. Once again, use a numbering system for the illustrations and
refer to them by number in your text.
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Subtitles,
sub-subtitles, and text enhancements may also be helpful.
However, if you use a numbering system for steps in the event, you may
not need as many subtitles.
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Also keep your language
at the technical level of the readers, and explain clearly any words that they
might not understand.
Instructions
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Remember in giving instructions that you must be clear at every
step for every type of reader. If a reader cannot understand one step, he
or she might become stuck at that step. Let your instructions be simple
and clear enough to flow like water in the mind of the least alert of your
readers.
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When giving instructions
or directions, start at the very beginning--it is better to make instructions
too simple than too difficult.
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Have a clear numbering
system.
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Use subtitles (and if necessary, a limited number of sub-subtitles) and text enhancement of words and titles to maintain reader
interest and ease of reading.
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Provide illustrations
frequently. Number these
illustrations. Refer to them by
number regularly in your text, too, so readers will seek them out and know where
to find them.
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Listing also is helpful.
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Some dangers to avoid are as follows:
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If a step is difficult,
break it into two or more smaller steps.
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Avoid having too many sub-steps, if possible--a large number of sub-steps
may make the process or instructions seem more complex than they
are. Instead of sub-steps, simply
have more major steps.
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Avoid
complex language your readers will not understand.
If it cannot be avoided, then explain it clearly and carefully. It
usually is acceptable to place brief explanations and alternative words in
parentheses right after the words they are defining.
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As you complete your later drafts, look carefully at the visual map above and
the sample paper in this chapter. Rearrange the order of your steps and paragraphs as needed. Consider your use of major
organizing devices: for example, have you placed the correct key sentences in
your introduction and conclusion, and have you developed a subtitle and topic
sentence at the beginning of each major body section?
Asterisks *, **, and *** for the
organizational plan or map above (similar advice given in most chapters):
*In most professions and businesses, the title is
typed simply: no quotation marks, underlining, or bold marking. It
is centered, and the font size and style are those used in the rest of the
paper--normally a 12-point font in a style such as Times New Roman,
Garamond, or CG Times. In a professional situation, you may use
academic style or whatever is commonly acceptable in your workplace.
** In some disciplines, the "Introduction" subtitle
may be optional or even forbidden. (Most social sciences and psychology
papers, for example, should not have an "Introduction" subtitle.)
***Some
professions and disciplines sometimes require a short
summary,
abstract, or précis
(see) of a text before you begin responding to it. Ask your
instructor. Such a summary generally should have no quotations within it
and, in professional and business writing, it usually must be a summary of the
contents of your paper.
***Some instructors may allow--or even, occasionally, prefer--your paper
to be completely free of subtitles. In most professional and
business situations, however, subtitles are required or encouraged.
That is because they are efficient. Because of the expectation of
efficiency, your topic sentences should be very brief, sometimes just a
transition word, along with a key word from your title or your
introduction's main statement of the paper's subject: for example, in a
paper about a zoo, your three major topic sentences (at the beginning of
each major topic section) might start with "First, the zoo...," "Second,
the zoo...," and "Third, the zoo..."). (See "Topic
Sentences.")
In addition, it is more efficient to add
simple, short transition words than to avoid them. Your word count
may end up slightly higher, but your improved clarity will make your paper
much easier to read.
For more
about organizing body sections, topic sentences, and subtitles in general,
please go to "Organizing
College Papers." For more about organizing paragraphs, go to the
"Paragraphing"
chapter.
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Are There Special Revising and Editing Needs? |
In
revising
a process description or set of instructions, the focus techniques
with which you started in the
Introduction to this
chapter also can help you finish your paper:
FOUR FOCUSES FOR REVISING:
Subject,
Drafts, Style, & Authenticity
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SUBJECT: Have you stayed on the subject
throughout? This
means being sure that everything ties together logically, not just in your
own mind but in the minds of readers. You also should avoid adding
details and thoughts ideas just because they are
interesting. In professional writing, be efficient in keeping to the
subject at hand. (If you have a really helpful or interesting
detail that is indirectly related, place it in a brief footnote.)
If you think your audience may have trouble grasping some parts of your
paper, add
background or explanation.
Be sure, in addition, to introduce, explain,
or connect each resource, if any to the content of your
discussion. This means that whether you have a quotation,
paraphrase, graph, image, or copy of something from the Internet, be sure
you have at least a sentence before and after it showing readers its purpose
or fit in the flow of your paragraph. |
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FIRST & SECOND DRAFTS: Have
you used all of the needed steps to write and revise your drafts?
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Free-write: If, after
reading your paper aloud, you feel there are places where the paper
sounds choppy or the flow is otherwise poor, try rewriting one or more
paragraphs spontaneously without looking at your original words.
(To help cure
choppy sentences, see "Using
Mixed-Length Sentences" in the "Editing" section.")
Imagine you are saying it aloud to a friend, instructor, or work
coordinator. Then revise and edit the new portions. For general freewriting, see "How
to Start First Drafts.")
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Gather details: Have you
spent too much time on general explanation and too little on
details? Details--names, dates, data, charts, lists, diagrams,
illustrations, and/or quotations and paraphrase--are the proofs of
a good professional paper. They also are the first elements your readers tend
to notice and the ones they will most remember, whether in the same
kind of detail or with a strong sense of you having supported your
points well.
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If you have too many details for one
section, consider dividing the section into two sections or subsections.
Instead, you might try moving some of the details to another section
where they might fit as well or better.
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Write for your audience: Imagine your
audience as being more than your immediate supervisor or
instructor. To whom might your supervisor show this paper?
What committee(s) might see it? A good professional paper can travel far,
and it may even be the basis of legal action, good or bad, or the
basis of a proposals, profits, or losses. Have you visualized
your audience?
Have you read your paper aloud as if reading to this audience?
Have you tried reading your paper aloud to a colleague, peer, friend, or
family member, pretending he or she is your audience? If you are
working with others in a pair or committee, have you asked them to read,
comment on, and help rewrite it?
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Organize: Have you used either the
organization above or a modified version of it suggested by your
supervisor or instructor? Have you carefully added and then reread
each major and minor part of this organizational system? Have you kept your
introduction, conclusion, and/or a beginning summary reasonably short, moving excess discussion
in them to body sections? Do you need to reorganize the body
sections for the greatest degree of logic, clarity, and audience
interest? Does each body section fulfill its purpose as expected
with this type of paper as applied to your particular discipline or
profession?
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Research: iF you need
to support your points and/or others' points with research, do you have
a sufficient number of high-quality sources? Have you fully
integrated them with your paper by citing and documenting them?
(In most disciplines or professions, "citing" means adding authors'
names and page numbers beside quotations, paraphrases, graphic
elements--e.g., pictures or charts--and anecdotes of experiences.
"Documenting" means providing a bibliography--or, if you have just a
very few sources, you sometimes are allowed to provide bibliographic
details in parentheses immediately after source material or in a
footnote.)
If you are using non-print sources such
as interviews, videos, or television, will they be considered
appropriate and representative (well representing a viewpoint needed and
accepted by your audience? If you are
using online sources, have you checked them carefully to verify their
quality and accuracy (see "Evaluating
Web Sites" in OnlineGrammar.org)?
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STYLE, TONE, AUDIENCE, & CRITICAL THINKING: Have you converted all parts of
your writing to the appropriate style and tone? This type
of paper
should use a formal professional writing style. If your
audience and purpose are of a more general nature (rather than of an
academic or scholarly nature), then you may want to use a more efficient
business style of writing with a mixture of medium and short sentences, and
varied medium and short paragraphs.
Generally, in professional and business writing, the tone or voice in your
words should show professional competence, honesty, and confidence.
Warmth may or may not be helpful, depending on your audience, but coldness,
sarcasm, or emotionalism should be avoided. To check tone or voice,
try reading your paper aloud--or have a colleague, peer, or friend read it
aloud to you--so you can hear whether your sentences sound as you want them
to.. |
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AUTHENTICITY: Have you made your paper as
reasonable, practicable, and logical as possible to your audience? If
you're not sure, ask questions of your audience ahead of time, and imagine
how your audience member(s) might want elements of
your paper explained to them. Have you tried to go to the heart
of the matter you are discussing? Have you brought interesting, vivid, and even
unusual details into the paper's contents? Have you been true to
yourself and your own interests in the subject by trying to find the most
interesting information to write about in each paragraph, something
meaningful to you? |
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Final Advice Given in Most Chapters
In most papers, you should use the third-person
pronoun: "he," "she," "it," and "they." You should not use "you"
unless you
are giving directions, or writing a diary or personal reflection, or a less
formal magazine or newsletter article or other specific advice (as in this
chapter). In professional writing, "I" is never used (unless occasionally
in the form of an anecdote, starting with a phrase such as "For example, I
was...").
Paragraphing in most academic papers follows some relatively standard guidelines.
You usually are working with a large amount of information when you write a
professional paper. For this
reason, clear, consistent paragraphing becomes even more important. Your
paragraphs should help you logically divide your body sections into smaller
sub-parts, ideas, or sub-ideas--just for the sake of clarity and ease of
reading, if for no other reason. Also, generally, for a short- to
medium-length paper, you should have one paragraph each for your introduction,
conclusion, and--if you have it--your summary.
You should, as a matter of habit, have at least two or three paragraphs per page in your final draft.
On the other hand, be careful not to have too many paragraphs per page. If you have a lot of
short, choppy paragraphs, combine them. The goal, graphically speaking,
is to provide your audience with a variety of paragraph lengths--an
occasional short one for emphasis or change of pace added to a mix of varying
medium and long paragraphs. The goal in terms of content is to make your
ideas flow so well that your audience can easily keep them clear and separate
without ever even noticing your paragraphing (or, for that matter, any other
mechanical aspect of your paper).
For more advice, go to the "Paragraphing"
chapter.
Several other common, useful strategies
of efficient, thorough editing are in the several chapters of the "Revising
and Editing" section. Some of these strategies also are summarized
in the following very-brief web page, which is aimed especially at people
writing professionally and/or in their majors:
Very Brief
Review of How
to Edit Your Final Draft
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Good luck with writing this type of paper. For
more advanced and/or interesting information on this type of paper, please see
one or more of the chapters on the right of
OnlineGrammar.org.
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